Vincent Abbott

The Rev. Dean Cogan, who compiled a history of the Diocese of Meath, in the last century, has this to say. "Durrow, Durrow what associations and holy memories linger around you!".

Durrow, hallowed by the footsteps of St. Columcille, one of the most cherished retreats from the turmoil and strife of the world. Let the mere tourist visit Durrow - even in its desolation, in its annihilation, he will experience feelings of awe and solemnity, which the tongue cannot tell. St. Columba’s Abbey and church it is true, are no longer there. The green grass and the shrubs grow over the solitude.

The matin bell no longer summons from her slumbers the cloistered monk to chant the praise of God, or welcome the children of the poor, the wayfarer or the stranger to join in holy exercises or partake of hospitality. The lights have long quenched on the altars, and the holy men are departed, their souls to a better world. Durrow no longer exists, not a stone of it remains. Its glories live in the traditions of its people and its monks have ascended like incense around the throne of the omnipotent God.

Yet in its ruin, and loneliness, there is a charm, a holy spell around the hallowed site and the surrounding scenery, which no earthly power can uproot, and which speaking to the heart in a language not to be mistaken, that here undoubtedly was one of the ancient sanctuaries of Ireland. This remarkable period of Irish history is described by Dr. Johnson in the following words - "Ireland was the school of the west, the quiet habitation of sanctity and literature".

Henry VIII was not a supporter of Protestantism. He was given the title of "Defender of the Faith" as a reward for his help in the decline of Catholicism, but it would be hard to find a place for him in genuine Catholicism due to his lust and greed.

CHAPTER 2

St. Columcille was a native of Derry. He was a relative of the O’Neill family. We may wonder why he came so far from home to found a monastery in Durrow. He was already recognised as a person of outstanding ability, and was the obvious choice to undertake such a task. He would be known to the local chieftain, who would issue the invitation. At the time of his birth, Columcille’s half uncle was High King at Tara. He lived long enough to see six of his cousins reign there. He was eligible for the highest position in the country, but he decided to abandon the world, and dedicate his life to the service of God.

He joined the monastery of Clonard, where he prepared for priesthood. We are told that he spent some time in the monastery of St. Mobi at Glasnevin, where one of his companions was St. Ciaran who later founded Clonmacnoise.

By the year 545, he returned to his native Derry, where he founded the monastery the following year. It was about ten years later that he came to Durrow, which was in the principality of Fir Ceall, beside the lands of the Southern O’Neill. Obviously, he was no stranger to the rulers of the area, where he eventually left a lasting memory.

The word "monk" came from the Greek word Monachos which means ALONE. It was first used by early christians to describe men who felt the need to go away by themselves, to some wild and lonely place to think about God and to pray. Jesus Christ went himself to the desert in just this way.

The earliest monastery grew up around these hermits, because men who also felt the call came to find their lonely shelter, wanting to learn from them and to copy their way of life.

We haven’t reliable evidence to say how long St. Columcille remained in the monastery of Durrow. His exile in Iona would rule out any hope of his return to Durrow in the later part of his life. How sad it is to know he was a very lonely person as a result of his being forbidden to return to Ireland. Perhaps his exile was a test which the Lord imposed on him. Weaker or less spiritually motivated men might have found it difficult to withstand such a trial. Here is a poem that he wrote at that time which reveals the loneliness and sorrow he felt.---

With joy across the crested waves to fly
And watch the sea break o’er Tirconnells shore
To hear the rocks responsive son reply
And Eire tread once more
My foot within my little boat I place
My eager eye I turn me to the west
My mind each well remembered spot can trace
Yet sorrow fills my breast
There is a sad heart strays across the main?
Where Eire rests upon the sunlit sea
Where joy shall glow nor pleasure flame again
No more – no more for me.

It would be hard to find a parish that has so faithfully remembered its patron Saint as Durrow.

Most of us are familiar with the account of the dispute over the transcript of St. Finian’s gospels, which St. Columcille was supposed to have copied without the owner’s leave which led to his exile. This incident was said to have taken place at a monastery near Strangford Lough called Dromen. If the story is correct, it seems more likely that it was a copy of part of the old Testament, and not a copy of the gospels that led to the dispute. St. Finian was said to be the first to bring the Mosiac law to Ireland. There was a poor chance of studying the old Testament in the early christian church, due to the lack of printing facilities.

One of the reasons why Columcille may have willingly submitted to banishment may have been remorse for persuading the Clan O’Neill to go to battle with king Diarmaid, to avenge a grievance in connection with the Psalter.

It was Diarmaid who ruled in favour of Finian - with the famous pronouncement- "Every cow its calf - Every book its copy".

It is said that Columcille decided as a penance to leave Ireland, and convert to Christianity. As many persons as were killed in battle over the copying dispute.

CHAPTER 3

One of the mistaken ideas we were expected to believe, was that before St. Patrick ended his missionary activities, the entire population of the country was converted to Christianity. It would be nice to think that was the case, but unfortunately, a pagan lifestyle was not likely to collapse so easily. Almost a century after St. Patrick’s time, St. Bridget’s father was still a pagan, and is said to have remained one even when St. Bridget entered the religious life. In that environment, the monasteries filled many needs. They looked after the poor and lowly, and provided a place of worship for the people. Frequently, they were used as places of penitential exercises, and as time went on, it was the desire of many to have the privilege of ending their days there, and if possible, to be buried within the monastery ground. The privilege still prevails at the present time.

One of the last High Kings of Ireland O’Connor is buried at Clonmacnois.

We mustn’t forget that from their earliest days, monasteries were great educational centres. As the monasteries became the centre of wealth, by being the owners of such magnificent sacred vessels as the Derrynaflan Chalice, they drew the attention of the marauding vikings.

From time to time, extra land was given to the monasteries by the local rulers.

The benefits derived from these lands were largely used to provide assistance for the poor and deprived. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the conditions many poor had to endure were desperate for the next 2 centuries.

We know that Venerable Edmund Rice, in Waterford, built a small bakery, and employed 2 men to supply bread to the poor in Waterford. The same bakery can be seen today. He also erected a tailors shop, and employed men to provide suits etc for the poor; at one period, he purchased a ¼ mile of cloth.

It would be interesting if we knew in detail the items of food that he distributed to the poor.

To be accepted as a member of the monastic community, severe tests were made to determine the worthiness of the person seeking admission. Aspirants to the monastic life, would need to show they were prepared to accept a life of sacrifice with long hours of prayer, solitude and menial work. For those who could persevere, it was very rewarding. As a well known Italian man who was beatified some years ago, once remarked "If holiness cost nothing, I would be worth nothing".

It would be a mistake to think that all the teaching of Christianity was accepted from the start. The beauty and purity of Christian worship did not lead at once to the abolition of popular pagan practices, which held an almost unassailable place in the tradition of the Irish race. The laws governing Christian marriage were a great source of trouble. The Irish (Pre Christian) law, allowed divorce and the having of two wives simultaneously in certain conditions. This practice held its place for a while, despite the efforts of the Church leaders to oust it, and introduce in its stead the canonical regulations regarding marriage.

The monastery in Durrow grew rapidly, and advanced in importance in a comparatively short period. It is the only monastery in Ireland mentioned by Bede, an international figure of great standing who referred to it as "Monasterium Nobile".

As an example of the high standing of Durrow, when the controversy arose concerning the date when Easter should be celebrated, one of the leading writers on the subject was Cummain Abbot of Durrow about 630 A.D. Around that time, Ireland’s reputation for learning was as its highest. Overseas Students crowded into the schools attached to monasteries. Durrow at that time was one of the most important educational establishments. We know that students flocked to Clonard. Have we any records or proof that they came to Durrow.

A poem addressed to an Abbot of Durrow, conveys to us something of the atmosphere of the place.

O’Cormack beautiful is thy Church
With its books and learning,
A devout city with 100 Crosses.
The Greer of Aedh son of Brenain,
The oak-plain of far famed Ros Grencha
i.e. Durrow.

There was a trend in Irish Monasticism in the 7th Century for monks to retire to a lonely desolate place where they could give themselves over to prayer and meditation, for months or even for a year. Their food would consist of watercress and herbs. They sometimes accepted alms, but the idea of possessing anything of their own was repugnant to them. If such a lifestyle was too taxing, the monk could return to the monastery. This custom was surely an attempt to follow the example of John the Baptist who was known as the Precursor of Jesus Christ. He was known to spend long periods at prayer in the desert, where his food consisted of wild honey and locusts.

Surviving links with the monastery of Durrow.

Unlike Clonmacnoise or Glendalough not a trace is left of any of the buildings that sheltered the monks in Durrow for almost a thousand years.

Two reminders of the past still survives. The High Cross and the Book of Durrow. It was here that holy men who had a hand in heaven transcribed and illuminated the gospels and left behind them a memorial more enduring than stone. This book contains 496 pages and is sometimes referred to as the elder sister of the Book of Kells because it was written 150 years earlier.

Both however belong to the great Columban Order and both have for a very long time shared the title " The Gospel of Columcille ".

The Book of Durrow was made of calf skin and is one of the earliest of its kind to contain the four gospels in Latin.

The ornamental designs are sometimes a reproduction of Celtic metal work. Its colour and designs became a model for continental artists. Some of the designs bore a close resemblance to those inscribed on stone of that time.

An inscription at the manuscripts conclusion was added to the book which read

" I ask you reverend presbyter Patrick that whenever you hold in your hand this book, you would remember me who wrote this Gospel in twelve days by the Grace of God".

We might wonder how the beautiful variety of colours was found in the design. Even at that early period in our history, some valuable dyes were brought in from places as far away as the middle east. Also, very valuable colours were got from various wild flowers.

Some of the Irish monks spread the art of copying and illuminating work of this type to continental Europe.

The Book of Durrow was in the safe keeping of the monks until about 900 AD.

Around that time, it was given a silver cover, by Flan the then High King. Three centuries later, there was copied into the back page of the book, the words of a lease conveying some land to Durrow from a monastery in Carlow. It’s regrettable that the silver case which enclosed this valuable manuscript disappeared during the military occupation of Trinity College (where it was then held) during the Jacobite Wars.

One of the features of this book, is that it was impervious to water. At one time, it had a very strange use. It was frequently soaked in water, which was then used for the treatment of sick animals. When the monastery of Durrow was dissolved in 1538 by the notorious Henry VIII, the manuscript passed into different hands until Henry Jones the Protestant Bishop of Meath, presented it to Trinity College in 1661. It was kept in a special cupboard, where it was later referred to as The Cupboard Manuscript. Not until the 19th Century did it again receive the attention that a work of its kind deserved.

A study of the Book of Durrow should make us proud of our heritage. We could put back the clock 1300 hundred years by having a look at it. In 1300 years to come, it will still be up to date. The symbols of the four evangelists Man, Lion, Calf and Eagle have each a full page which illustrate fine penmanship.

After the dissolution of the monasteries, the relief of the poor became a pressing necessity. Many Churches in England were provided with collection boxes, which have the words "Remember the poor".

One of the cherished privileges enfayed by monasteries in ancient times, was the right of Sanctuary. It meant that no civil power had a right to enter a monastery to arrest a man who had been granted Sanctuary by the monks. One flagrant breach of this privilege occurred at a monastery in Lorrha in Co. Tipperary.

The King of Ireland demanded the right to recover a fugitive who had taken refuge there in the 6th Century. The Abbot Ruadhan well knew that an issue of principal was at stake, and also was aware of the anger and determination of the King. In spite of a desire to avoid a confrontation with the civil authorities by the community, the King defied their wishes and forcibly entered and seized the fugitive. The Abbot felt he had no option but to make a dramatic response. He travelled to Tara to ask for an apology by the King, who wasn’t there to meet the Abbot. When there appeared no chance of seeing an acknowledgement of guilt, the Abbot in a solemn ceremony with bell, book and candle, cursed Tara in such a means that it is believed that the famous hill was never afterwards the residence of a King.

The Oak Forests from which Durrow gets its name, were a familiar sight in former times. The prefix "Derry" in so many placenames, refer to a vast oak woodland, and point out the importance of these places in times gone by.

At one time, the oak forest may have dominated the Irish landscape. Oak was valued not only for the timber it supplied for the construction of boats, barrels and furniture. Before corn growing was introduced on any great scale, oak leaves were used to bed and fodder cattle. The oak leaves are rich in tannin, and were a useful agent in dye preparation. The galls, which are referred to as oak apples, which were actually swellings of leaf tissue that surround insect eggs on the leaves, were also used in the manufacture of dyes. In Pre Christian Ireland, the oak was regarded as a sacred tree. One of the reasons for the importance and veneration of the oak, may have been its longevity. The mighty boughs, and broad spreading canopy, may have given the oak a majesty that other trees in the forest could never possess.

The High Cross of Durrow

The only landmark or surviving reminder of the monastery is the High Cross which stands in the lower end of the old graveyard. In its early days, it should have been something of great beauty, as well as serving a particular purpose.

At the time of its erection, very few people could read or write. Even if they could, there was very little reading material available. The art of printing didn’t arrive for almost 1000 years later. Something the owners of the first printing press should be justifiably proud of, is that the Bible was the first book to be printed. This took place in Gothenburg Germany.

If the good news of the Bible described by the four evangelists was not available for distribution in printed forms, the next best was a sermon in stone. All around the High Cross in Durrow, a biblical lesson was given in visual form. The custom of using signs or symbols, when conveying a message, date back to early Christian times. The signs then used in the business of communication were called Hieroglyphs.

The origin and purpose of baronies

You may note that the greatest part of Durrow is in the barony of Ballycowan, and a portion of it is part of Co. Westmeath, is in the barony of Moycashel. We might ask ourselves how these divisions came about.

The basic territorial divisions of Celtic Ireland was the tuath - (tribe or people). There is a resemblance between Barony names and Tuath names. The book of rights in the 11th Century lists only 97 Tuatha, although today there are 273 Baronies in Ireland. The modern barony, therefore, is a superimposed division, and may be representative of single or multiple earlier, until either Gaelic or Anglo Norman referred to as "The Cantred".

The first time the term "Barony" was used in Ireland was in the kingdom of Meath in 1171.

De Lacey was presented with the vast territory of Meath, which then stretched from the Irish Sea to the Shannon. Being unable to govern the entire area on his own, he divided it into baronies, which were governed by Barons.

From the 16th Century onwards, the barony was widely used as an administrative, taxation and regional entity. The baronial geography of 17th Century Ireland is to be found in the three great state ledger books:

The Civil Survey

The Down Survey

The Books of Survey and Distribution

Sporting activities in the 18th Century were sometimes organised on a barony basis. In much the same way as a hurling and football are now organised on a county basis.

In 1823, legislation was introduced to enable Grand Juries to divide into two parts, baronies in excess of 50,000 acres Irish measure. The Grand Jury Act of 1836 authorised the holding of presentment sessions in each barony.

Until 1901, the barony was used as a census enumeration unit, and the general valuation of rateable property carried out under the provisions of the Valuation (Ireland) act was organised and published by Barony. The reorganisation of local Government in the late 19th Century heralded the end of the barony as a meaningful territorial division.

Poor Law Unions were originally devised for the administration of various laws introduced to ameliorate the widespread poverty of 19th Century Ireland.

Early monastic period

For some time after the death of St. Patrick, there aren’t reliable records to tell us how the early Christian Church fared. It is believed that by the mid sixth century, the Church emerged in a different form.

As a follow-up to the enthusiasm that followed the spread of Christianity, monasteries sprang up in great numbers all over the country. They were ruled over by an Abbot, who usually performed the duties of Bishop, in close association with local rulers. The entry to the religious life wasn’t confined to the male sex. Ample opportunities existed for the founding of convents for nuns.

The design of the original monasteries was very simple and austere. Built principally of timber- wattle and mud, with scant regard for the physical comfort of the inmates. Where a plentiful supply of stone was available, it was often used to construct the walls and even the roofs of the monastic cells. Some of these have survived to the present day in the west of Ireland.

Examples: St. Enda’s monastery on the Aran Islands.

Although the use of mortar from burnt limestone in England at that time, hardly escaped the Irish monks, it was years later that it was widely used here. It was first used in the construction of churches and bell towers. By the eight century it was in fairly general use. It wasn’t long until the monks found a great need for it in the building of round towers.

Look at the exquisite skill and ingenuity displayed in the erection of the round towers.

It’s something of a surprise that for a monastery if such importance as Durrow, no round tower stands to mark the exact site of its location. Two round towers remain beside the famous monastery of Clonmacnoise. There’s a possibility that a round tower may at one time have adorned the monastery at Durrow. But as some of those who later got possession of the Abbey lands tried to obliterate every trace of the monastery buildings, a round tower may have suffered a similar fate.

What a pity that the day to day problems had to be placed in the monastery, were never fully recorded. For an institution that survived for almost a thousand years, we might assume that many events of great importance occurred, and were discussed from time to time there. Much of the history of the early Christian Church was bedevelled by the fact that many men held high office, that were far from worthy of the respect which their station deserved. In Britain about the 5th Century, a hierarchy of exceptionally imperfect men were frequently confronted by monks who led and promoted an ascetical lifestyle.

This is what happened after an unworthy person was put in control. When the Abbot Thurston who was descended as more of a soldier than a monk, was appointed to one of the richest monasteries in England - Glastonbury, he attempted to introduce new ceremonies and chants. Defiant monks armed themselves with Church furniture and took refuge before the Altar, only to be shot down by Norman men at arms from the gallery, which led to the deaths of two, and the wounding of 12. This scandal led to the Abbot’s resignation. Admittedly, much of the trouble in Church affairs in England was caused by the Normans, who gained the crown after the Battle of Hastings in 1066.

In one Diocese in France, around 470 A.D., there were three contenders for the vacant See. The wordly advantages of the Episcopal office, whetted the appetite of the ambitious.

One exploited his high birth, the second won adherents, by means of splendid banquets. The third concluded a treaty with the electors, by which they were to benefit from the goods of the Church. In the Frankish kingdom of the 8th century, there were men who would stop at nothing to become possessed of a Bishopric.

We might wonder how the Church survived in such a sorry atmosphere. Problems always arose in the Church from its very first appearance. But the sins of the few should not be allowed to tarnish the good repute of the many, and it also applies to the recent events in the Catholic Church in the nineteen nineties. After all, didn’t the most trusted of Our Lord’s apostles either run away from him, or deny they ever knew Him in His hour of trial. In spite of that show of weakness, He promised to be with them to the end of time. If it wasn’t for His guiding hand, what would have happened.

Difficulties Christianity had to deal with

From its earliest days, the spreading of the Gospel was constantly hampered by interference from the then rulers of the particular area in question. Unfortunately, the clear-cut pronouncement of Our Lord - "Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God, the things that are God’s", was never fully adhered to. We had frequent interference in the affairs of the Church in Ireland.

The primatial see of Armagh, was for long regarded as the sole preserve of the O’Neills. At one period, the holder of the primatial see wasn’t even an ordained priest or consecrated bishop.

The dioceses when eventually formed, followed closely on the territory ruled by a particular chief. The dioceses of Meath corresponds to the ancient kingdom of Meath. It was divided into a number of tiny dioceses in the 12th Century. Clonard being one of them. If you take note of the coat of arms of the Meath diocese, it displays 3 mitres.

The position of the clergy of the different Christian denominations in Ireland today, is much more favourable than what prevailed in former times. The position of the Established Church of Ireland in the 18th and early 19th Century was compromised by being seen to be too much under the thumb of the ascendancy. Appointments to the bishoprics was too frequently under the control of the powers that be, with the result that choices were sometimes made as a result of political favouritism. It appears rather odd, that in England today, decisions regarding Church liturgy and the acceptance of the ordination of women to the Church of England, should be decided by parliament, which includes a reasonably high number of agnostics. In several European countries, the unhealthy intrusion by the state in purely Church affairs, did untold damage to religion. The position of the clergy of the Catholic Church in Ireland today is strengthened by the fact that they receive no salary from the state. They are in a better position to speak out on many pressing problems when not under the thumb of any particular government.

Opening the graveyard in Durrow

The present cemetery adjoining the Catholic Church was opened around the time the church was built, and has been extended in recent years. It contains the remains of many notable people.

Andrew Maxwell described the grave as a "Fine and private Place". A fitting verse which may sometimes be seen on gravestones reads:

"Man’s life is like unto a winters daye.
Some break their fast and so depart awaye.
Others stay dinner - then depart full fed.
The longest age but sups and goes to bed.
O reader then behold and see,
As we are now so must you be."

As was customary, yew trees were planted in rows, all over the cemetery. There’s something very appropriate about the presence of yew trees around graveyards. Firstly, they are evergreen, and also they provide a visual symbol of immortality. Other reasons are put forward to explain why yew trees were planted in cemeteries since the 16th century. At one time they were though to be a remedy against witches, and other evil influences. Another theory was that the yew tree attracts and imbibes putrification and objectionable vapours exhaled out of graves by the setting sun.

In parts of Ireland and across the sea, there was a reluctance to be the first to be buried in a newly opened cemetery. Due to some superstitious belief, it was feared that the Devil took the first corpse. Sometimes during excavations, prior to the construction of houses, burial places are discovered.

In 1986, what was believed to be a pre-Christian grave was found in Durrow near Tullamore. The remains were brought for burial in the local cemetery.

In a nearby cemetery, inscribed on a monument, was:

"Here lies his wife Mary Ann who sleeps in the Bosom of Abraham".

As this poor woman was of a huge person before the Lord called her – a rather rude person wrote underneath:

"It’s all very well for Mary Ann, but it’s hard times on Abraham".

In former times, it wasn’t customary to erect headstones over graves. Up to the end of the 17th century, it was considered sufficient to have a mound of earth , with a small wooden cross over one’s grave. That may be a reason why ancient graveyards are not identifiable.

Later, the better off people were fond of erecting expensive monuments over their departed ones. When the Puritans overran the country with Cromwell, the practice was condemned as idolatrous.

If you visit any of the old cemeteries where Puritan settlers or their descendants were buried, you will notice the absence of headstones. Instead, large flags were usually placed horizontally over the graves.

As few ancient burial places are recognisable today, the oldest seem to be around the sites of ancient monasteries, people often wonder where the dead were formerly interred. In olden times, many were buried near their own homes. There wasn’t always the same custom observed as at present, where public cemeteries are their accepted resting place. During times of plague and cholera, it was difficult to get a person to handle a corpse for fear of infection. Oftentimes, the burial would take place at a spot nearest to where he died. The photo shown on next page shows the grave of a mother and son who died of cholera in 1865. The field nearest their home was their resting place.

In the Bronze Age, sites of cist graves were usually selected on elevated ground.

Many such burials were discovered on Eskers. In Rahugh in the early part of the century, grave of that type was found that was constructed with stone slabs, which contained the skeleton of a person buried there. Although it was reconstructed on a site some distance back from the edge, where gravel was raised it eventually was allowed to disappear.

In 1831, Lord Glendine gave 2 acres for the erection of a Church and a new burial ground. The cemetery was consecrated by Dr. Cantwell in September of that year.

Unfortunately, Cromwell’s aversions weren’t confined to the erection of gravestones. The celebration of Christmas was prohibited, and for a number of years it passed almost without notice. Being something of a killjoy, he believed the festivity associated with the event was over emphasised. He wouldn’t want to return now or he’d be shocked by the commercialism of Christmas, and the abuse of drink so noticeable in recent years.

Health problems in the 16th and 17th Century.

With the numerous privileges and advantages we enjoy in the present age, we might be inclined to forget the disadvantaged endured even half a century ago. To get a glance of what it was like to be sick in the 16th and 17th centuries, we should ask ourselves what we’d do today without the great variety of tablets and drugs for the relief of headaches. It’s not so long ago since the principal remedies for Pleurisy and Pneumonia consisted of hot poultices of linseed meal, applied to the patient’s lungs. It was hailed as a great advance when M & B was discovered in the 1930’s and used to treat Pneumonia. Until then, there was a danger of permanent damage to the lungs, even if a person did recover from these complaints, A shortage of running water and proper toilet facilities hit people.

After the Cromwellian period, dysentery was very common. It was referred to as the "Bloody Flu". Considering the insanitary and cold conditions that prevailed at that time, it was no surprise that many fell a victim to the disorder.

By 1691, it was claimed that the decline in the incidence of Dysentery was due to the widespread reclamation of bogs, which followed the restoration of Charles II. The use of turf for heating was more frequently used after that period.

Plague or Black Death was not so common by the 18th century as it had been earlier. It devastated many parts of Ireland during the ill-fated wars against Elizabeth I. This disease arrived from Europe, and was caused by rats. Ever since then, the fear of rats is endemic. As time wore on, another serious problem arose as a result of Small Pox. In its early days, it was often fatal. If a person recovered, there was danger of permanent disfigurement and even blindness.

Before the Great Famine of 1846-1847, regular epidemics of fever were a feature of life in Ireland, often breaking out at intervals of about ten years. Housing conditions and insufficient food were contributing causes.

One of our best known poets and harpists, Carolan, was afflicted with blindness from an early age, as a result of small pox. It was years later before a vaccine was discovered to prevent it spread. We may thank the famous French scientist Louis Pasteur 1822-1895 for their marvellous discovery. (His son was killed in the Franco Prussian War of 1870, which was a blow, the great benefactor of mankind never fully recovered from). Not until then, was this method of inoculation with the attenuated virus of certain diseases ever used. He also discovered a method of arresting fermentation in beer and milk, by heating to a temperature of at least 140 degrees F.H. By the commencement of the present century, it was compulsory to have all children vaccinated against small pox.

Traces of superstition in Ireland

We had traces of superstition in many parts of Ireland, even to our own times. I saw a little of it in my own area in my younger days, and it is not to be wondered, if some of these old practises existed in Durrow as well.

When a person entered a farmhouse where butter was being churned, he or she was expected to take a turn with the churn. It was often feared that if the custom wasn’t observed, some supernatural agency would cause the butter to vanish. People in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had a strong belief in the existence of fairies, whose evil influence on the dairy and the livestock was always feared.

On St. John’s Eve, it was customary to light fires in the principal gaps, through which cattle passed, so as to prevent the fairies from passing through. The custom of lighting bonfires on the night of the 29th June was observed until recent years. Sometimes a melodian would provide a few dance tunes to enliven the party.

On May 1st, rings of mountain ash were sometimes attached to cows udders, to ward off evil spells of fairies. The custom of nailing a horseshoe on the threshold of a house, was said to be a symbol of luck.

The placing of two burnt embers in the thatch, in the form of a cross, was done to prevent fire.

A cure for what is now known as blackleg was to place a conagh worm in a small auger hole in a tree and sealing him comfortably there. The leaves from this tree were said to have healing properties when boiled.

It was very little wonder that most of these ideas were readily accepted by simple people, who had very poor opportunities for the discovery of fresh ideas. At the present day, the old saying holds good with many - that "An apple a day keeps the doctor away". It might be safe to add: "An onion a day will keep everyone away".

Closure of the Abbey

The Monastery at Durrow shared the same fate as many more, after the order for their dissolution by Henry VIII in 1539. In parts of Ireland where English rule wasn’t complete, some monasteries escaped the greed of the tyrants, and managed to survive until after the ill-fated Confederate War 1641-49.

By 1574, the Abbey Lands of Durrow were given to Herbert, who held possession until after the Jacobite Wars.

In 1541, King Henry, through a parliament he set up in Dublin, proclaimed himself supreme ruler in Ireland, both in Civil and Spiritual affairs. Some of the Irish Lords and Princes were present at the parliament, and concurred to its decrees, which were explained to them in Irish by the Earl of Ormond. The proclamation of supremacy in religious affairs was not taken too seriously, but still some of them were prepared to profit from the spoilation of the monastery lands.

The Four Masters describe Henry VIII’s decree as "A new heresy, and a new error in England through pride, vain glory, avarice and lust.

By 1815, the estate was in the hands of John Toler, who was better known as Lord Norbury, Chief Justice of Ireland, and the man who is remembered as having presided at the trial of Robert Emmett. Contrary to what many believed, he was not the man who was murdered when arriving home from Mullingar Court in 1839. As usually happens after an unsolved murder, many rumours circulated concerning the aspirations of the crime. But Lord Norbury’s family believed that some of the tenants were responsible for the crime. It was customary that the tenants shared the privilege of carrying the remains of their deceased landlord to his burial place. But the family of Lord Norbury didn’t allow his tenants to enjoy that privilege, as a result of their strong suspicion that his killers came from among them. Something that never was proved.

Farming in the middle ages

If we could compare yields of corn nowadays, from land that received an adequate dressing of fertilisers, to what comes off land that gets none, we should have a fair idea of the poor returns gained from cereal growing in former days.

In the absence of manure tillage, land would be left idle every second year, and kept fallow in preparation for the next crop. An attempt was sometimes made to add a temporary fertility to land, for corn crops by burning the surface sod. This practice was frowned on by progressive farmers.

In the second half of the 17th century, lime was in general use as a fertiliser. Unlike nowadays, there was no way of finding out if the land actually needed lime. The use of phosphate was not in general use until well into the last century.

One of the great wonders, was the discovery of the remains of a bird sanctuary in a South American desert. The product found there was sold under the trade name of Guano. Its first application produced marvellous results.

Another terrible practice resorted to by smallholders, was ploughing by having the plough pulled by the horses tail. In the reign of Charles I in 1636, an act was passed, making it illegal to do so. But the practice continued for years, in spite of the imposition of fines, where people were caught.

One of the arguments offered in defence of having the plough pulled by the horses tail, was that to avoid hurting themselves, the horses stopped instantly, whereas the soc of the plough struck against anything solid. When they were more humanely harnessed, they were liable to even break the plough share or the traces. The type of land ploughed then was not short of either rocks or stones, not to mention tree stumps, which were everywhere, as evidence of the woods which up to then covered much of the country.

Tillage farming wasn’t popular until the 18th century, when more improved methods were gradually introduced. Livestock was the mainstay for centuries. Due to the absence of field fences, large numbers of herdsmen were required to keep the cattle from straying too far. Cattle would usually be rounded up in the evening, and put into the barn for the night. In Summer, cattle would be allowed to remain in the open, and their herdsmen would stay with them, or sleep in turn in hastily constructed shelters made from branches or trees. We had to wait until after the plantations, to have the field fences of today erected by order of the landlord, so as to have holdings more identifiable.

Educational prospects in 1672

This was the time that S. Oliver Plunkett was Archbishop of Armagh. He was so much respected by Protestants as well as Catholics, that he enjoyed the protection of the Earl of Charlemont, and other powerful persons in Ulster. During the time Berkely was Viceroy, there was a great degree of toleration. Three Catholic schools were founded. One in Drogheda, where 150 Catholic pupils attended, and 40 of the sons of Protestant gentry as well. A year later when there was a more appressive regime under a new Viceroy Essex, the schools were closed. A letter Dr. Plunkett sent to the secretary of propaganda in Rome, reveals a sad story.

"Matters here have been very severe, so that I am in concealment. The lay Catholics are so much afraid of losing their property, that none with anything to lose will give refuge to the clergy. The regular clergy have some connivance to remain, yet the Catholics dread almost to admit them to say Mass in their houses. The priests give noting to the bishops or ordinary. I sometimes find it difficult to procure even oaten bread, and the house where Dr. Brennan is, is made of straw, and covered and thatched in such a manner that from our bed we may see the stars, and at the head of the bed, even the slightest shower respected us. But we are resolved rather to die, than abandon our flocks. There is nothing that occasions me more inward grief, than to see schools which were instituted by me now destroyed after so many toils. O what well the Catholic youth do which is both numerous and full of talent".

A few years later, when the complete extinction of the Irish bishops was determined on, we find him still firm in his resolution to remain at his post at the risk of his life. "We shall not, he wrote, abandon our flocks, till we are compelled by force to do so. We will suffer imprisonment and other torments. We have already suffered so much on the mountains and hills and caverns, and we have acquired such as habit that for the future suffering, will be less severe or troublesome." He seemed to have a premonition of his death on the scaffold. For a member of an aristocratic family, his lifestyle was appalling. His relations were the Earls of Fingal, and members of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy.

Ireland's unique position in the religious upheavals of the 16th Century

During the period of religious strife which bedwelled Europe and England in the 16th century, I think it may be said that every country except Ireland accepted without question, certainly without serious opposition, the faith which is government favoured. France was Catholic because its kings were Catholic. England became almost unanimously non-Catholic under Edward I. Edward I reverted with similar unanimity to Catholicism under Queen Mary. Became anti-Catholic again under Elizabeth and James I, and would doubtless have returned once more to Catholicism under James I, if that monarch was more diplomatic and had little common sense or had the slightest gift of leadership.

When that monster Oliver Cromwell controlled the destinies of England from 1649 to 1660, he abolished the use of the Book Of Common Prayer and substituted his own form of Liturgy. The rights of the Church of England were ignored.

In the early part of this century, Joseph Chamberlain announced, "The day of the small nations has long passed away, the day of empire has come".

Only a decade later, Asquith the Prime Minister defining Britain’s aims in the First World War in a Guildhall speech: "We shall never sheath the sword, until the rights of the smaller nations of Europe are placed on an unassailable foundation."

Five years later 4 Empires disappeared A, Germany, B, Turkey.

The German states are Protestant or Catholic, according to the disposition of the ruling powers. There was but one country where the people remained steadfast to a faith, in the teeth of every attempt of government to change it, and that was Ireland. Though their faith was persecuted with an ingenuity which Edmond Burke declared "to have embodied the utmost perversity of the human intellect".

Irishmen and Catholics were not merely excluded from all chance of political involvement, they were not allowed to hold property. Under the original Penal Law, if a land owner was Catholic, his lands were confiscated to the crown. In fairness, it was often found that no one cared to turn informer, and the Judge appreciating the vice of such legislation easily found plausible excuses for refusing to enforce it.

The law provided that the son, if he laid information that his father was a Catholic and proved it, could at once take possession of their land. If he refused to commit such a monstrous crime, the next of kin could assail the title on the same grounds. In the early days of the Penal Laws, observance of Catholic rites were prohibited under the most savage penalties. There was a poor chance of defying laws in towns or villages. Seldom was there a suitable building to hold the people for Divine worship, with the result that Mass was frequently celebrated in some sheltered place in the open. A huge rock often substituted for an altar. There was very little chance of having incense to burn before that type of altar, but frequently, the small of wild flowers and meadow grasses provided a perfume that equalled that provided by swinging cencers.

A Frenchman who visited Ireland at the close of the eighteenth century, seeing the congregations sometimes worshipping in the open air, or at best in some wretched cabin, incapable of excluding the elements with rain often beating down on the faithful, who were standing in mud, recorded his deliberate conviction that the intense devotion displayed by these unsheltered congregations, could not be paralleled anywhere in Europe.

To add to the difficulties in practising their faith, the Irish people at that time were reduced to abject poverty. After the Cromwellian Wars and the utter defeat of the Irish in the Jacobite Wars, very few churches that formerly served the people, had by now even a roof overhead. It was often a case of necessity to worship in the open. But to be fair to the Protestant neighbours who witnessed this terrible state of affairs, many of them saw the injustice of it all, and if they weren’t in a position to shelter the priest at least turned a blind eye.

In this day and age, it appears very odd indeed that our temporal rulers should decide for us what forms of religion we should practice. How objectionable it would seem if the President of Ireland laid down sweeping guidelines for us to follow in matters of faith and morals.

After the despicable ordeal of the 30 Years War in mainland Europe, in the 17th century, which was fought over religion, and ended in stalemate, worse was to follow. In the terms of the Peace of Westfalia in 1649, it was agreed by the warring parties, that the religion of the people were to practice was that decided on by the rulers of each state. It’s difficult to ascertain the reaction of the majority of the people who were affected by that notorious decision, as they had very few opportunities of airing their views that time. We in our own age, would react very unfavourably of governments attempted to impose the lyre of belief on the citizens. But unfortunately, this generation witnessed a savage attempt to impose an Atheist system by the Communist rulers of Russia. Thankfully it failed.

Former pastimes

If we ever wonder what form of amusement or pastime did the people of Durrow have in the seventeenth and 18th centuries, we mustn’t forget that hurling was then very popular. There were some rough pastimes too - blanket tossing, for which many a poor man offered himself to be tossed to amuse the so called gentry. In one of those pastimes, a man was killed, as a result of blanket tossing. His widow sued the Countess of Cloncarthy, on the grounds that he was barbarously murdered by her son. In her defence, the countess said: "There was a custom (though an inhuman pastime), to toss men in blankets, that the country people would come freely to offer themselves to be tossed for 2/6. It was also admitted that this man was unfortunately tossed, and for want of care, died soon afterwards." As might be expected, the claim failed.

There was one unsavoury custom associated with pilgrimages held annually in honour of the local saint. Indeed, until recent times, excessive drinking frequently occurred at wakes. At the Synod of Bishops held in Maynooth in 1918, guidelines were laid down to stop some of the abuse. Instead of wakes going on two or three nights, the deceased person was brought to the church the evening prior to his funeral.

A story is told of a young married man, who was instructed by his young wife after the first baby arrived, to go and buy a stainless steel bath for the baby. Due to a little embarrassment on his part, he asked for a small bath for a baby with a stainless steel bottom.

An Englishman who admittedly was not too friendly to the Catholic way of life, described how people taking part in pilgrimages in Durrow and other places, often proceeded on their bare knees over rough and stony ground, and made merry in dancing, song and carousing. He mentioned: "They were no longer concerned for their sins that were the cause of such severe penances, but as if they now having paid the score, longed to go on in them again."

Reporting on one pilgrimage in the West of Ireland he said " Often more blood falls on the grass from their drunken pates, when the pilgrimage is over, then was shed on the stones from their bare feet during the devotions." All these abuses were discouraged by the Church. But the difficulties surrounding the Catholic Clergy in the performance of their duties during the days of the Penal Code, and the lack of proper education, ensured that it was many years before their efforts were attended with success. In some cases, where unseemly conduct was associated with annual pilgrimages, the clergy stopped these events completely.

People in many parts of Ireland and even in the midlands, felt so downtrodden and frustrated, that they even indulged in bull bating and dog fights.

A French visitor in the 18th century described in verse what he once saw:

The gaping crowds who still delight - to be spectators
At a fight or to see a scuffle at a fair
And who from meat and drink forbe About a bitch in mighty ragear
Or see two rival dogs engage
Pressed on apace to feed their eyes
And see the issue of their prize
And Gillo master of the treat
And revels made them all retreat
And leave those champions room enough
To wrestle scratch and kick and cuff
Sometimes with close embrace they hug with art they grip with strength they tug
And when the hardness of their skulls, they try like rams or pushing bulls
And how they both together fall to ground and in strange postures fall
Then up they start in mighty rage
And like fierce mastiffs do engage
The ring where the fight maintained
With purple gore was all disdained
And slippery made

Very scant education could compose poetry to describe in humorous forms, many events from a football match to a house dance.

Wrestling was a common form of pastime in the 17th century in places like Durrow. Each contestant would hold on to the other’s belt until the round started. In one of these matches, the man who was considered unbeatable, was challenged by an opponent whom nobody fancied. To the surprise of the onlookers, the match was over in less then a minute. The man who was regarded as unbeatable, lay prostrate with his neck broken. Instead of being arrested and charged with manslaughter, the victor was proclaimed a popular hero.

Viewing it from today’s attitudes, it appears almost unbelievable that two men in their normal senses, would agree to face each other with loaded pistols in order to settle an old insult. It’s most amazing to learn that Daniel O’Connell accepted the challenge of D’esterre to meet him in a duel in Co. Kildare, following O’Connell’s reference to the Beggerly Corporation of Dublin of which D’esterre was a member. There was a second fear for O’Connell’s life in facing an opponent who was a crack shot. To the surprise of the huge crowd of spectators, D’esterre was fatally wounded by O’Connell’s first shot. Crowds celebrated his victory with bonfires in the streets of Dublin that night. But O’Connell was overwhelmed by remorse for the rest of his life. He offered to share his income with D’esterre’s widow. He afterwards wore a black glove on the hand that fired the fatal shot.

Housing in the 17th Century

Housing in former times would present a miserable spectacle if we were able to reproduce a picture of it today. Even as late as the Famine Years 1846-47, the hovels many of our forefathers lived in beggared description. The following account of living conditions around 1820 appears in the following verse:

Built without either brick or stone
Or couples to lay a roof upon
With wattles into wattles tied
Fixt in the ground on either side
Did like a shaded arbour show
With seats of sods and roof of straw
The floor beneath with rushes laid stead
Of tapestry; no bed or bedstead
No poster nor bolts nor hinges in door
No chimney, kitchen, hall or window
But narrow doormants stopt with hay
All night and open in the day
On either side there was a door
Extent from roof unto the floor
Which they like hedgehogs stopt with straw
Or when as the wind does blow
And though they reach from top to floor
His grace crept in upon all four
Betwixt the door there was a spot
In the middle to hang over a pot

Land measurements

One often wonders why until very recent times, at auctions where meadows or grazing were being let, it was always by what was referred to as "Irish Measure". The Irish acre was roughly in the ratio of 3 to 5 statute measure. The use of Irish Measure was used to the benefit of Cromwell’s soldiers, and was later referred to as Plantation Measure. This arrangement meant giving much more to the new possessors, than if it was marked down in statute acres. Hence, the possession of enormous holdings of land, by the people who were later to be known as The Landlords. The Old Irish system where the peasantry held land from the chieftains, conferred many favourable conditions on the holders chief of which was that he couldn’t be evicted for failure to pay what was due to the head of the clan. The unfortunate Irish soon found that their new masters weren’t too much concerned about Social Justice. Measurements for the holding of land, were not so commonly used in Ireland in former times, as the Rundale system or common ownership often prevailed. In England, linear measures were used much earlier. In Egypt, such methods were in use as early as 1400 B.C.

Not until 1305 in England during the reign of Edward I, was the present system of Linear Measurements introduced. Only then, were standard measures set, with which other measures could be compared.

3 grains of barley dry and round made an inch

12 inches made a foot

3 feet made a yard

1 Ulna (which means Latin for elbow)

Ulna make a rod (old name for ford)

40 Rods in length and 4 in breadth make an acre

Later, the Ulna was called a yard. A long cord knotted at intervals of 5 cubits, was used for measuring a field.

In order to facilitate the planters, the land of Ireland was measured in the 16 50ces under the direction of a man named Downes. His work was referred to as the Downes Survey. Not until 200 years later (in 1854), was the next survey concluded - The Griffith Survey.

Emigration in the 19th Century

From early in the century, emigration was a feature of life in every part of Ireland. Durrow was no exception. Unlike the emigrants of the present time, most who were

forced to leave in search of employment had no specialised skills. It fell to the lot of the vast majority of Irishmen who crossed to England in those days, to do heavy manual work. One source of employment was the digging out of the tubes, that now provide a rail system for the city of London. Unfortunately, more than Irish workers looked for a job on these sites. Frequently, they were exploited by unscrupulous contractors, who sought cheap labour. Many a fight took place between gangs of Irish workers and others, who believed these intruders were endangering their prospects of a job. Sometimes, a contractor would succeed in getting a gang of Irish workers to accept lower pay then others. After arriving there with no great prospects, it was easy to exploit them. That was before when Trade Unions took control. But if working conditions were tough, at least it meant that they had a small, but regular supply of money which they never had when at home in Ireland.

While on the subject, a few words on the history and origin of the tube would be of interest.

The first attempt to construct an Underground Rail System was in 1862, which ended in failure. Not until a tender was invited for the construction of a Subway System between The Tower and Bermordsey, did an engineer named Barlow seize a chance to demonstrate his new tunnelling methods. A shaft was sunk to a depth of 60 feet. Boring was done with a shield shaped affair, about 6’ in length. Maximum progress was 9 feet in 24 hours. They were careful to keep at least 22 feet below the level of the river bed. The clay beneath the river bed was easy to bore through and would not respond to explosives. With modern methods of boring, progress would be about 30 feet a day as a result of the use of hydraulic power. As boring progressed, it was lined with cast iron tubes in 18 ft. sections. The space between the iron and the clay was filled with blue cement, forced inward with a syringe. Most of the boring was done unknown to the traffic that passed overhead, who never knew that through one small shaft, 18 feet wide and 92 feet deep, 53,000 tons of clay had been removed, and 3,600 tons of cement lowered. 950 tons of steel girders, 2,700 tons of cast iron and 1,200 tons of bricks.

Amusements and pastimes prior to radio and television

Radio and the goggly box are so much a part of life today, that it must appear impossible to many of the younger generation to visualise living without either. Yet, most of my age

group started life without seeing or believing such things existed. Not until 1926, was radio introduced to this country. For many more years, only the privileged could afford to have a receiver or listener, as is commonly referred, to hear broadcasts from what was known as 2RN, from a modest station in Henry Street, Dublin. It was a great novelty to visit a house where a "Listener in " was installed.

Some years earlier, moving pictures were shown in cinemas in the larger towns. But even in the late 1920’s people flocked in great numbers to see slides from The Magic Lanterns. The first talkie arrived to the Grand Central in Tullamore in 1930, which featured Al Jolson in the Singing Fool, in which he sang Sunny Boy.

The arrival of moving pictures to the towns, didn’t mean that we all could view them at will. Our only means of travel was the bike, which wasn’t so encouraging for night travel. It was surprising how many people completed their life without ever seeing a movie. This was common enough, even into the late fifties. It might be a matter of interest to today’s youth as to how people passed the long dark nights, or what form of pastimes existed. Members of every family had time to pray then, which was done on a regular basis, every night, usually at a fixed hour. There was a better type of conversation, where a greater sense of humour was in evidence. After so many generations had to make do with so little, and exist on very low incomes, most people’s expectations were modest. Not so long ago, public dance halls were unheard of, not to mention the singing lounges of today’s world. Dances were frequently held in private houses, and despite the absence of the maple floor, were highly enjoyable.

We were privileged to escape the relentless pressure of modern advertisements, which give a distorted picture of living, and present an unattainable an unrealistic picture before our minds. We are told a person can become beautiful if only a certain brand of face cream is used. Just buy and be happy. Buy and you’ll be transformed into whatever you want to be. Money is the means to happiness, or so the message implies.

In the 1920’s, a modest dance hall sprang up in Bracklin, which provided a limited sort of pastime for young people from Durrow. This hall was formerly a small dwelling house that belonged to the Kinnarney family. The inside walls were removed, and a corrugated iron roof replaced the original thatched roof. It was rather modest looking by today’s standards, but filled the needs of the time for a number of years. Pat Mealuff and Joe Finlay were usually in charge.

Some of the films that were shown in the early years of the cinema were hilarious. In one of the early ones, viewers were amazed at the actors creeping across the ceiling of a room.

Little did we know, how many tricks of the trade were used by the operators of the camera. It transpired that the chairs and furniture in the room were fastened to the ceiling, with the floor adorned with the lamp in the centre. The players were only creeping on the floor, with the camera used upside down.

Health conditions

The greatest discovery in modern times, was Penicillin - announced in September 1928 by Alexander Fleming. Although in much improved form today, it was to save countless lives in the war against human disease.

In striking contrast to the use of hot poultices being applied to the lungs for the treatment of Pneumonia and Pleurisy, the discovery of a drug called M&B, 60 years ago was hailed as a marvellous breakthrough. It wasn’t long until it was regarded as obsolete, when more effective treatment arrived.

No one suffered as much as the mentally ill. At one time, it was suggested that such people were possessed by an evil spirit. This thinking didn’t encourage much sympathy for the poor afflicted person. A good beating was recommended as suitable treatment. In recent years, much headway has been made in the care and treatment of the mentally ill. Recovery is the general rule, in contrast to the unfortunate predicament of many in former years who spent the greatest part of their life behind high walls.

Places of worship for Durrow people

During the short reign of James II from 1685 to 1690, the Catholics had access to a church, situated near the Cross of Durrow. After the defeat of the Jacobites, most of the churches that recently changed hands were given back to the established church. From about 1704, a determined effort was made by the government to make things impossible for the Catholics. The Irish parliament enacted what was to be called the "Popery Code", which they believed would keep Catholics in a state of permanent subjection.

Ostensibly, the aim of the anti-Catholic laws was to eradicate the Catholic religion in Ireland. But in fact, apart form sporadic outbursts of persecution, the Penal Laws against religious worship, were largely allowed to fall into disuse from about 1716 on.

The Penal Laws which were enforced, were those which debarred Catholics from parliament, from holding any government office, high or low, from entering the legal profession or serving in the army. Great numbers of barristers and lawyers went over to the established church early in the 18th century.

In practice, most places were allowed to have a priest offer Mass in whatever usable building was available. At one time, Mass was offered in a chapel in Kildangan. No trace of it exists today, because like the one shown as the chapel in a village in Leix it was probably mudwall.

It if often enquired why were Catholic churches referred to as chapels, and places of worship for the Protestant communities were called churches. When the Penal Laws were on the statute books, only the places of worship of the established church could legally be defined by the name "Church".

There was no enthusiasm by the landlord class, who actually owned the country, to convert all the Catholics to the established church. If that happened, their position would be made to appear less privileged.

Their chief concern was to deprive the Catholics of the right to vote or sit in parliament. If that happened, the privileges enjoyed by the landlord dominated parliament would be wiped away. Most of the anti- Catholic laws were enacted against the background of a war in Europe, in which Ireland had already been made the catspaw of the rival powers. Great numbers of the Irish soldiers who left after the Surrender of Limerick, were fighting alongside the French under Louis XIV It was feared they might join an invading army at any time, in order to restore the Stuarts to the throne. To make sure the Irish were denied the sinews of war, it was seen that most Catholic landowners would be compelled to join the established church. By the middle of the century, the amount collected in rent by Catholic landlords, was a mere £60,000 out of a total of £4,000,000

Dean Swift attacked the society which tolerated the dreadful conditions of the poor in Ireland. In 1729, he published a modest proposal, a savage satire in which he offers for public consideration a scheme for the killing off of year old children, whose flesh will make a most delicious, nourishing and wholesome food. For a man who hated hypocrisy and injustice, it’s to be noted he never made any plea doe tolerance for Catholics to practice their faith.

To return to conditions that prevailed in Durrow in the 18th century, regarding public worship, we have to realise that where they did exist, they were far from the stone structures of the present day. The best hoped for would likely be mudwall shacks, with a thatched roof. One such building served the needs in Kildangan. In fine weather, it was often more convenient to celebrate Mass in the open, after a hastily constructed shelter was made fir the altar and celebrant. In order not to incite the wrath of the authorities, Catholic places of worship were referred to as chapels not churches.

At that time, Tullamore was a tiny village, and was only an extension of the parish of Durrow. It is told that where a suitable place of worship couldn’t be found, and the priest was about to commence Mass in the open, a kindly Protestant landowner invited them to use his spacious cow shed, where at least there was a roof overhead.

Mass was offered in chapels at Kilbride and Ballyduff. The arrival of the canal to Tullamore, marked the commencement of its growth. Some time later, the county court was transferred From Philipstown to Tullamore. A number of priests who ministered in Tullamore, are buried in the old cemetery in Durrow.

Tullamore Workhouse

Until a few years ago, as we passed into Tullamore on the Arden Road, we passed a grey stone building with the date 1843 inscribed over the entrance. That what was regarded by a mixture of fear and dread by many deprived old people. They feared being compelled to end their days in such places. In fairness, it must be admitted, that in the first few years of their existence, many deprived people were saved there from death by starvation. The first admissions were taken in on the 9th June 1842. But the conditions that prevailed in many of these institutions during and after the famine, left sad and bitter memories on former inmates. At their commencement, they were at best a desperate method to relieve a still more desperate situation.

It fell to the landlord class to finance these institutions, as the vast majority of people there were not classified as ratepayers. In order to insure too many unfortunate people would not be requesting admission, it was laid down that conditions in the workhouses would be no better than what existed in their own homes. This wasn’t a difficult rule to follow, as many poor people were forced to leave homes where indescribable poverty existed.

Despite such safeguards, most workhouses, including Tullamore, were grossly overcrowded. The plight of many old and infirm, from the far end of the county, was pitiable. Many never had a relative come to visit them in their last years, and no one to claim them when they died. It was a sad and lonely procession to the burial place in Arden, for some where the only people present might be some employees from the old home and an officiating priest.

There was little joy for the unmarried mother, who was compelled by some unkind circumstance, to avail of the hospitality of the workhouse to bring the baby into an unwelcoming world.

After the establishing of the Co. Councils in 1898, conditions gradually improved. Still the running of the workhouse was in the hands of the Board of Guardians, where very little money was available to improve the lot of the inmates. The staff in charge were poorly paid. Even as late as 1915, the master of the County Home received a salary of £50 per annum with rations. Shortly after the formation of the first Irish government in 1922, the name "Workhouse" was dropped, and such institutions were officially named County Homes. Even after the change of name, the very mention of being sent there, brought sadness and despair to many unfortunate people for some time later.

We mustn’t forget that if conditions in workhouses weren’t ideal, the circumstances of many who were admitted to these institutions was desperate, in the extreme most of no income whatever. No wonder the announcement of a pension of 5/- a week in 1903, was received with joy.

In the last 25 years, great efforts were made to improve the lot of our sick and deprived senior citizens. The last remnants of the old workhouse was demolished, in __ and replaced by the Geriatric wing to the County Hospital. It may be a pity that some of the grey cut stone buildings at the entrance to the old County Home were not spared for future generations to see.

Rebellion of 1798

If ever there was justification in rebelling against an unjust administration, it existed in the Ireland of 1798. But was it practical. The hopes of a military victory on the resources available to the United Irishmen was nil. You can’t defeat a well armed enemy with pikes made in the local forge. The only hope lay in massive help from France. This help would

be given only to aid their war against England. Strong military powers seldom champion the cause of freedom for weak nations- except for selfish reasons.

The France of the 1790’s was no model of Justice or Liberty. The murdered gangs that ran riot during the revolution, shocked the civilised world. Little wonder that the entire gang who ruled France and were known as the "Commune" ended their days on the Scaffold by decapitation with the Guillotine.

One of the leaders of the United Irishmen who visited Paris in 1794, wrote home to his wife:

"My ideas of reform and of another world which begins with the same letter, are very much altered by living 12 months in France, and I never wish to see either one or the other achieved by force. I have seen one faction rising over another and overturning it. Each of them in turn making a stalking horse of the supreme power of the people, to cover public and private massacre and plunder, while every man of virtue and humanity shuddered and skulked in a disgraceful silence".

The term "United Irishmen" could not be taken too literally. It would be a mistake to think such unity existed. Although some well meaning members of the Presbyterian community near Belfast were involved in the movement, the majority of the Protestant population were alarmed, which led to the formation of the Orange Order in 1795 and later.

The Catholic bishops gave no support to the rising of 1798 for a number of reasons. They were just beginning to consolidate the improved conditions which prevailed, and realised the hopelessness of the struggle, no matter how justified it might appear.

Perhaps the lesson of the Jacobite War wasn’t lost on the Catholic bishops. At that time, the Irish enthusiastically gave their support to King James, who was only a pawn in the hands of Louis XIV of France. The Irish were dependent on French guns and money, which never arrived in adequate amounts. Added to this, was the difficulty in communications. The French General St. Ruth, didn’t know a word of Irish or English. The Irish didn’t know any French. It’s not hard to imagine the confusion that often arose in battle, when the combined Irish and French couldn’t understand orders given by the superior officers.

Another factor which must have influenced the bishops, was the belief Wolfe Tone had in the revolution, the best hope of freeing the minds of the oppressed from Catholic superstition. The term "United Irishmen" seemed a very noble and desirable aspiration, which on paper aimed of uniting Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter. But the rounding up and ill-treatment of Protestants near Enniscorthy during the rising, gave rise to serious disillusionment. In practice, only a very small number of well meaning Presbyterians fell for the ideal.

The French at that time, could not be trusted to give religious freedom, as they had already closed the churches and abolished the Sabbath. The sufferings endured by the defeated insurgents, made many believe it was better that the rising never took place. In practice, it worked out that the unfortunate Irish were better to have hugged their chains, then take the consequences of failure which hastened the Act of Union. The canal which reached Tullamore some years earlier, was used to bring reinforcements of soldiers to meet the insurgents, who were hoping to link up with the French under Humbert, who never got beyond Ballinamuck in Longford, where he surrendered and was given all the honours and protection meted out to a prisoner of war. It was very different to the Irish Volunteers, who joined the French on their initial victories at Killala and Castlebar. The native Irish were relentlessly pursued, and given no quarter. It must be said that the French General succeeded in getting a safe return for his own soldiers, and allowed the unfortunate Irish to fall a victim to the maximum harassment. It would be a foolish person who hoped to receive any form of compassion from the victorious English soldiers.

The English soldier 200 years ago, was recruited from a very much lower stratum of the population than now. The ideas and ways of living of the better classes of those days were decidedly coarse, and those of the lower classes was brutal. To maintain effective discipline in an army so recruited, a code of laws and military punishments of frightful severity were considered necessary. The amount of hanging and flogging recorded in the general orders of former days is startling.

The soldiers dress in the 18th century, although quaint in shape, was not the skin tight absurdity it became a hundred years later, when soldiers wore blood red coats. If such uniforms were still in use at the commencement of the war in 1914, you can imagine how easy the enemy could pick them out.