The Copper And Bronze Ages In Offaly

The series of articles tracing the history of the county through its monuments, written by archaeologist, Caimin O'Brien, on behalf of Offaly Heritage Forum, in conjunction with the Tribune's Tadhg Carey, continues this week with the focus on the development of metal-working techniques in the Copper and Bronze Ages.

Offaly Bogs Reveal Wealth Of Bronze Age

Around 2500 BC, thanks to the emergence of copper axes, Irish society moved away from a stone age economy to a metal-working society. This new technology did not herald the immediate end of stone tools. Instead, humans gradually added these new metal artifacts to their existing set of stone implements.

Originally, it was believed that the advent of a new metal technology implied the arrival of a new people into Ireland, however, recently, this has been rejected and we now see it as part of a process of change in Irish society.

This change may have been influenced by contact through trade with other European tribes who were proficient in the use of copper. There is no substantial deposit of copper in Offaly with the nearest source located in the Silvermines/Rearcross area of Co. Tipperary. However, an important hoard, dated from the period, was found 10m below the surface of the bog at Kilcormac in 1879. Known as the Frankford Hoard, it contains an early example of a flat copper axe along with a small dagger and halberd (long blade mounted onto a shaft at a right angle). This new range of artefacts is a characteristic feature of the Copper Age and is in stark contrast to the stone tools of the earlier Neolithic period.

After this initial period of using copper on its own, the idea of mixing the metal ore with tin to produce bronze appears to have occurred around 2,000BC. This period is known to archaeologists as the Bronze Age and lasts from 2000BC until it is replaced by the Iron Age around 600BC. During this era, we see how a society changes from an agricultural economy with the large-scale communal tombs of the neolithic, to an elitist or hierarchical type society possibly based on a warrior aristocracy.
Offaly plays an important role in providing information on this new society from discoveries of artefacts and excavations of settlements within the new county.

As the Bronze Age started to evolve, so too did the Irish landscape with the appearance and growth of blanket bogs, probably in direct response to adverse effects that farming had on the soils of the country. As the bog began to grow, it started to cover the Bronze Age landscape. The process has been revealed over the last few centuries as the original landscapes have been exposed again during turf cutting and harvesting operations.

These bogs should be seen as one of the most important sources or repositories of information on our prehistoric past. The emergence of gold personal ornaments such as dress fasteners, lunulae, torcs, ear-rings and the appearance of musical trumpets and bronze weapons such as shields and swords has led archaeologists to speculate that, during this period, society saw the emergence of warrior aristocracy. Most of these items have been discovered in collections of artefacts found in wetland locations known as hoards. Several important hoards have been found in Offaly, the most famous of all being the Dowris Hoard. This was found in a bog at Whigsborough near Birr in the early nineteenth century.

The hoard contained the largest collection of bronze objects ever found in Ireland, including 26 bronze trumpets/horns, axes, a bronze bucket, bronze cauldron and numerous other artefacts which are now stored in the National Museum of Ireland and the British Museum.

Other important hoards from Offaly include a gold hoard found at Derrinboy bog, near Kilcormac and a hoard found at Meenwaun near Banagher, which contained a beautiful amber necklace. All of these finds illustrates the wealth of Bronze Age society.

It has been speculated that these hoards may represent a sacred ritual associated with the deposition of one's wealth into scared pools or wet places as an offering to the Gods. The objects from the hoards indicate that these people had contacts with other communities throughout Europe especially along the sea routes of the Atlantic Ocean, such as Spain, France and Britain.

Other possible sources of contact, including tribes from Northern Europe, have been suggested while the amber necklace suggests contacts either with the Baltic region or with areas rich in amber deposits such as Eastern Scotland, Northern Germany, Scandinavia and Holland. Along with this increased variety of artefacts, we also see the emergence of a more complex range of field monuments, possibly indicating a more complex society. The following are the main monuments which appear during the Bronze Age.

1. Standing Stones: These are single large upright stones often referred to locally as the King's Stone, Gallán or Long Stone. Their function is unclear but some have been shown to mark prehistoric burials, while others may have had a commemmorative or ritual function. It has also been suggested that they may have acted as markers of territorial boundaries.
   There are around a dozen extant standing stones listed in the Archaeological Inventory of County Offaly. Stones at Ballyburley (near Rhode) and Kilcreman (on the Laois/Offaly border close to Roscrea) are found close to nearby ring-barrows.

   A Burial Mound in the form of a ring barrow at teh rear with a standing stone in front at Kilcreman at the Laois/Offaly border.

2. Burial Mounds: Known as barrows, these are often earthen mounds which cover the interred remains of one or several burials contained within cists (flagstone box). When the covering mound is constructed from stone, archaeologists refer to these as cairns.
   Around 40 possible burial mounds and cairns have been identified in Offaly. Among the best examples are a ring barrow known as O'Dempsey's Ring at Ballykean near Raheen outside Geashill and another at Gorraun near Ballybritt.
3. Fulachta Fiadh or Burnt Mounds: Ancient cooking sites usually located on wet marshy land which very often have a horseshoe-shaped mound. This mound is formed from the waste debris of the cooking process. In order to cook food, a stone-lined or wooden trough was filled with water. This was brought to the boil by placing hot stones from a nearby fire into the water-filled trough. Once the water was boiling the meat was immersed into the water and cooked accordingly.
   When the trough was being cleaned out, the shattered stones and debris from the fire was heaped up around the trough and this is what gives the mound its characteristic horse shoe shape.
   An open area was kept clear in order to provide access from the trough to the nearby stream.
   Only a dozen or so such sites have been identified in Offaly, although, archaeologists believe many more are present, but undiscovered, in the county.
   There is a cluster of five fulachta fiadh to be found at Garr, in the north eastern corner of the county, close to the Offaly, Meath and Westmeath border area.
4. Rock Art is a term used to describe a series of linear lines, circles and cups often found carved into natural bedrock. A rock at Clonfinlough near Clonmacnoise has been suggested as having Bronze Age rock art carved on its surface.
5. Lake dwellings or lakeshore settlements have been discovered at Ballynahinch in Ballinderry Lough, close to Horseleap, and at Clonfinlough near Fin Lough Lake. Both of these sites have been excavated and were discovered to be Bronze Age settlements. The site at Clonfinlough consisted of a large palisaded enclosure containing circular houses which was well preserved beneath the bog.
   This site was excavated by the Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit and is one of the best preserved Bronze Age enclosures in Ireland. The site at Ballinderry, excavated in 1942, consisted of a timber platform, possibly the foundations of a timber house, on the shores of a Bronze Age lake and later covered by the bog.
6. Hilltop Enclosures and hillforts can be described as large circular areas enclosed by one or many earthen banks originally surmounted by a wooden palisade located on top of a hill in a prominent location with extensive views of the surrounding countryside. Aghancon hillfort near Roscrea is an excellent example of a hillfort, which may have its origins in the Bronze Age. It is possible that it may have acted as an importnat defensive enclosure or as an important centre for ritualistic activity associated with the religion of the people of the time.

Pictured is the hilltop enclosure at Cooraclevin near Barna, Dunkerrin, situated on the summit of a hill in upland terrain overlooking the Little Brosna.

7. Boulder burials consist of a large capstone resting on three small stones, somewhat similar to portal tombs. These are found mainly in southwest Ireland with one known example from Rearcross, Co. Tipperary. There are no known examples in Offaly.
8. Stone Alignments and Stone Circles: These appeared during the Bronze Age and appear to be associated with ritual ceremonies of this period. Stone alignments consist of three or more stones set closely together on a straight line. Their function is unclear and they may have had a role to play with the religious ceremonies of the time. Some people have suggested a solar function or an alignment with the setting or rising sun. Stone circles are closely set stones arranged in a circle, possibly for ceremonial or ritualistic purposes. Neither of these monument types are found in Co. Offaly.

All of these monuments indicate the increasing complexity and sophistication of Bronze Age society and offers an interesting parallel with a similar development in the personal artefacts of Bronze Age people. The introduction of metalworking appears to have introduced the concept of personal wealth, and possibly indicates the emergence of a ruling warrior aristocracy with a new complex religion.

The bogs in Co. Offaly have been central in revealing information about our prehistoric past. The discoveries of hoards have offered us an insight into the personal dress and daily lives of these people, while the enclosure at Clonfinlough has revealed the type of houses these people constructed over 3,500 years ago.

Reconstruction drawing of Clonfinlough as it might have looked.

More interesting discoveries in Offaly await the archaeologists, as Bord Na Mona pushes on with the development of the bogs in the coming years. This information will undoubtedly offer us a clearer and more accurate of what life was like in Bronze Age Offaly between 4,000 and 2,000 years ago.

Fairies, Folklore And Clonmacnoise

In the late 1930s the Irish Folklore Commission undertook a survey of Irish folklore by sending out a questionnaire to all the schools in Ireland. The survey collected all the folklore associated with each school's area and recorded the beliefs of the local people in relation to special places and monuments in their locality.

Below are two pieces of folklore collected from the Clonmacnoise area about the Clonfinlough stone and other peculiar stones in their area.

This survey gives us a glimpse of how the people of Offaly treasured their monuments and how they perceived them and what social role they played in the minds of the local people. According to the folklore survey, the Clonfinlough stone had images in the form of cross-men and loop-men carved onto the surface of the rock. This image puzzled many antiquarians for years until one Abbe Breuil deciphered the image and concluded that it represented a fight to a finish between the Old Irish and the Milesians in pre-Christian times, 1300BC. The cross-men were charging at the loop-men who in return were retreating from the attack.

He told the locals that there were many such stones in Spain. The story went on to say that they believed it was the oldest stone in Ireland and described it as "A stone that before Our Lord founded his apostolic church lay there enjoying the glorious sunshine in Summer and the rain leaving it as pure and white as the lily, in winter". Meanwhile, another story from the Clonmacnoise area records that there were two big rocks in a field which a local boy named Michael was continually playing around in the summer time. One summer day he was out playing as usual and he did not come in until dark. When he came in he began to tell his mother about a strange little boy he was playing with at the rocks.

He showed his mother a beautiful silver knife which he said he got from the little boy. When the mother saw the knife she was afraid to let him keep the knife and she made him go back to the rocks with her in order to return it. Michael left the knife on the rock and the next morning when he went out to play again, the knife was gone and he never saw the little boy again. It is said that the strange little boy was a fairy and he was trying to coax young Michael away. It is also said that another Michael will find the knife, and when he does he will find two big pots of gold under the rocks.

A ringwork located at Dungar close to Roscrea on the Kinnitty Road. It has been suggested that this is of Bronze Age origin and may have served as a ceremonial enclosure for ritual purposes, similar to a henge-type monument. The monument, which contains a large platform with internal fosse or ditch which fills with water in damp weather, was probably reused in the medieval period as an Anglo-Norman earthwork castle.

The Iron Age In Offaly

Native Irish Absorb European Celtic Influence

Some time around 500BC, Irish people moved from a bronze-making culture to one based on iron. This new technology appeared gradually and slowly displaced the earlier bronze-based technology. This displacement may have given rise to a new form of society with new social and economic relationships.

The Iron Age was traditionally seen by archaeologists as a time when a European Iron Age culture, known as the Celts, came into Ireland and displaced the native population. The arrival of these new people heralded the appearance of new artifacts manufactured from iron along with a new art style and language. However, recent research has suggested that we should now look at the Irish Iron Age as a time when the native Irish population were influenced by the European Celtic culture. Instead of having a new way foisted upon them, the Iron Age Irish gradually absorbed the technology and lifestyle of Continental Europe.

This new lifestyle emerged around 700-500 BC, when a new culture, characterised by a war-like character and a love of personal adornments began to flourish in Western Europe. A distinctive set of artifacts and a non-classical curvilinear abstract art form were central to this new cultural identity. This common European culture was labelled 'La Tene' after an excavation on Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland, which had been the scene for ritual deposition of artifacts. These objects display the distinctive art form which have also been found in Ireland, Britain and Continental Europe. However each region has its own local style which reflects the local population's native ideas- giving each country its distinctive but comparable culture.
This explains why, in Ireland, we see the earlier traditions and artifacts of the Bronze Age mixed in with the new artifacts of the Iron Age and the continuing use of earlier Bronze Age monuments such as burial mounds.
This is the period which saw the emergence of Celtic Ireland, described later by Early Christian monks. It was a society with a chariot driving warrior aristocracy engaged in cattle raiding and warfare. On the continent, this culture was eventually overtaken by the Roman conquest of Britain and Europe.

The fact that the Romans did not invade Scotland and Ireland meant that the Celtic culture continued to develop without being taken over by the ways of the Romans. Instead, Ireland retained its distinctive Celtic character, while at the same time absorbing new changes throughout Roman Europe.

Absent from our landscape are the large fortified settlements and inhumation cemeteries distinctive of the European Celts. In fact, Irish archaeology has very little knowledge of the settlement of this period, and we are only beginning to research the daily lives of the ordinary people. Most of our information comes from artifacts, which have been either excavated or found accidentally and these items tend to belong to the higher ranks of society.

One of the main sources of iron used in the Iron Age possibly came from bog iron ore which is found in abundant supply in the bogs of Offaly, and which was still being extracted in Derrygreenagh bog up until the late 1950s. This period saw the decline of bronze weapons such as swords and socketed axeheads and there was less emphasis too on the ritual deposition of metal in wet locations.

There was also a decline in the amount of gold areftacts being produced. However, one of the most important finds from this period is the Broighter Hoard found during ploughing of fields in 1896 on the shores of Lough Foyle in Co. Derry. This hoard contained seven gold objects including torcs, a wire necklace, a gold cauldron and a magnificent gold model boat complete with oars, anchor and mast. Nonetheless, the most spectacular item of personal adornment of La Tene style found in Ireland was uncovered in a bog near Clonmacnoise.

The Clonmacnoise Torc, a stunning example of Iron age La Tene style personal adornment.

 

It is a stunning example of prehistoric craftsmanship. Dating back to about 300 BC, the gold torc was formed by by two curved gold tubes made from rolled and bent strips of gold. The seam, which is along the concave edge, is soldered and polished. A large fused buffer feature is at the front of the torc. It is flanked at each side by cone shaped features.
Both in decoration and form the torc is closely comparable to continental examples. It is likely to be an import from Gaul rather than a locally produced item.

This find was dated to between the first century BC and the third century AD, and provides evidence for our maritime tradition and the important role the sea played in trade and communication with the outside world. One of the necklaces came from the Mediterranean, possibly Egypt, and shows how widespread the contacts were between Ireland and the rest of Europe. Evidence for more widespread contact has shown up in the archaeological excavation at Navan fort in Co.Armagh which produced the skull of a barbary ape of North African origin.

As mentioned earlier, the art style of the Celts was of the utmost importance in their cultural identity, and the Turoe stone located near Loughrea in Co. Galway is one of the finest examples of this art style.

A rotary quern stone used for grinding cereals from Clonmacnoise also displays evidence of this new art style. Other new objects such as fibulae or safety pins, dress pins, glass beads and horns or trumpets decorated with the curvilinear art, also make their appearance in this archaeological period. Artifacts associated with horses, such as bridle bits and harness mounts, begin to dominate evidence for this period suggesting the important role the horse played in Celtic society.

At Corlea Bog, Co. Longford, where there is an excellent interpretative centre, there is on display an impressive timber road dating from 148 BC which measures over 2km long and is up to four metre wide. This togher illustrates the importance of horse transport, probably by chariot, in the daily lives of the Celts. Many examples of chariots have been found throughout Europe, but to this day no such item has been found in Ireland.

Offaly's peatland base have provided physical evidence of a number of toghers. Among the more notable toghers in the county was uncovered during ploughing at Ballykilleen near Edenderry.

During certain periods, crop marks are visible indicating the contours of the togher which stretches in a northerly direction to Ballykilleen fort. Most of the artifacts described above belong to the higher ranks of Irish society and they illustrate the wealth and extensive contacts the tribal leaders had throughout Europe. A similar picture emerges with the known monuments from the Iron Age. These include the Hill of Tara, Co. Meath, Navan Fort, Co. Armagh, Dun Ailinne, Co Kildare and Rathcroghan, Co. Roscommon.

All of these monuments represent the sacred landscape of our Iron Age ancestors, and are often referred to as Royal sites. These monuments consist of large spaces, often with impressive views of the surrounding countryside, enclosed by an inner ditch and outer bank, encompassing a sacred area devoted to the worship of their ancestors or gods. Navan fort occupies an area of about 15 acres, while Knockaulin Hillfort in Co. Kildare occupies an area of over 30 acres. These large hilltop enclosures and hillforts appear to be the centres for the ritual ceremonies of the Iron Age rulers.

Excavations of some hillforts have shown how they can have their origins in the preceding Bronze Age, possibly confirming the transition by native populations from one period to the next. The Hill of Croghan in north Offaly and the hillfort at Aghancon near Roscrea may have been two centres of ritual activity in Co Offaly during the Iron Age. Bronze Age burial mounds, known as barrows are either re-used or newly constructed as coverings for cremation burials.

An impressive hillfort encompassing some 14 acres at Ballycurragh/Glebe near Aghancon - a likely setting for ritual activity during the Iron Age.

A good example of such a mound, which may date from the Iron Age, is the burial mound (already featured in part 1) located on the top of Croghan Hill.

It's hilltop location, with panoramic views and its close relationship with the O'Connor tribe of North Offaly, suggest that this hill may have been the focus for ritual activity during the Iron Age although it may have been used from the Neolithic time onwards. Other important hillforts are located on the summits of Cumber Hill and Knocknaman both located in the Slieve Bloom mountains.

Linear earthworks are another monument type found in Offaly and consists of intermittent stretches of a bank and ditch over a long distance, sometimes between several counties, also appear during this period. One of the best known examples is the Black Pigs Dyke in Northern Ireland which runs for a distance of 130 miles, and possibly acts as a boundary ditch between the ancient territory of Ulster and the rest of Ireland.

There are several examples of linear earthworks in Co. Offaly which are known locally as the split hills near Clonmacnoise, the ancient entrenchments at Killurin or Cromwell's lines, a linear earthwork between the Blueball and Mucklagh.

Unfortunately, in the case of the Killurin and Mucklagh earthworks, although recorded in previous ordinance survey maps, there are now little visible remains present at ground level. In Clonmacnoise, it's believed that the earthwork was longer than its present remains.

As the Iron Age comes to a close, we begin to enter the historic period of our past where the written word becomes the dominant method of transferring ideas from one generation to the next, in other words, we move from the prehistoric to the historic period.

Leamanaghan Cows And Peculiar Stones

Irish Sagas or our heroic tales about Cu Chulainn and the Fianna have been described as a window on our Iron Age past. These heroic tales describe a fantasy version of society which may have elements of real Iron Age life incorporated into their telling. Tales such as the Cattle Raid of Cooley show us the important role cattle played in Irish society. Several Offaly folktales tales confirm the important role cattle played in Irish life and how up until the early 1900s the cow still occupied a special place in the minds of Offaly people.

The 'Cow Story' of Lemanaghan and the story of St. Ciaran's cow are two tales from Offaly which highlights this important role;

St. Manchan's cow was a famous beast belonging to St. Manchan in 'Liath' which gave copious supplies of milk to all who came in need. The monks in nearby Kilmanaghan, not to be outdone in generosity, decided that they'd steal the cow and dispose of her, thus ending the miracle of liath. St. Manchan and his monks followed the footprints of their cow to Kilmanaghan and found her already cut up in a pot. St. Manchan blessed the pot and lo! The cow came to life again. The cow resumed her supply of milk to the poor of Lemanaghan and strange to relate; milk is never sold in Lemanaghan, even to this day.

Another story records a belief about a peculiar stone in Clonmacnoise known locally as St. Ciaran's stone, which is located one mile north of Clonmacnoise on the Clonascra road. The story goes that when St. Ciaran came to Clonmacnoise he took with him his cows. The cow was known far and near by everyone for she was indeed very famous for supplying milk. Upon hearing this the people of Coosan became envious and made up a horrid plan to steal the cow. So early one morning two men came to Ciaran's pasture and stole the cow.

Then they beat her with a stick to make her run for fear they would be caught but in their hurry the cow fell on a flag and her two knees sunk into it leaving the impression of two circular shaped holes. However when the cow got on her feet again she journeyed on until she came to a river in Bloomhill. She swam across the river but she had not gone very far from it when she lay down on a flat stone to rest for a little while. Ever since then the people passing that way make the sign of the cross upon this stone with their foot for it is an old belief that it would not be right to pass without doing so.

The story goes on to record how St. Ciaran recovered his beloved cow. It is recorded that several cures for headaches and toothaches were worked at St. Ciaran's stone by using the water which collects in the cow's tracks.

Early Medieval Offaly- The Arrival Of Christianity

Monasteries, Towns, Tribes And Kings

The Early Medieval period in Offaly (400 AD to 1170AD) represents one of the most interesting in the county's history. In this period, the arrival of Christianity resulted in the flourishing of a series of monastic settlements, spawned by Offaly's location on the boundaries of Ireland's ancient provinces. Of course, the spread of Christianity to Ireland was the first step in this development. The earliest historical reference to the presence of Christians in Ireland dates to 431 AD when Pope Celestine sent Palladius as a bishop to the Christians of Ireland.

He was followed by other missionaries, the most famous of all being Patrick who went on to become Ireland's patron saint. These missionaries not only came to Ireland to spread the word of God to the pre-Christian people of the Iron Age but also to preach to the existing Christian communities.

The missionariers arrived in an Ireland dominated by tribes and kings.

In the Midlands, the Uí Ui Néill tribe which claimed inheritance to Niall of the Nine Hostages had begun to expand its power base from the North by the fifth century. They claimed the kingship of the region spanning from Offaly to the North of Ireland with the Hill of Tara as their symbolic centre of kingship. The hill was to become the political centre of their rule in Ireland. At the same time the Eóganacht family was expanding its power from the south of Ireland, up into modern South Offaly, claiming the kingship of Munster. The Eóganacht's power base was the Rock of Cashel from where they claimed authority to rule over the province of Munster.

Obviously, Offaly as a region did not exist during this period but as an area of land it was placed on a frontier zone between these two ruling tribes. Eventually in the later medieval period this rivalry would lead to the claim for the High Kingship of Ireland with rival kings from different provinces fighting for this mystical title.

In fact, in the fifth century, this part of the country was located at the crossroads of the four provinces of Ireland. The provinces, Meath, Leinster, Munster and Connacht, all had boundaries in the area of modern Offaly.

This important frontier location combined with the presence of the esker ridges- which acted as transport routes across Ireland- are the main reasons why so many churches and monasteries were established in the county.

By this period, Ireland had emerged as a fully-fledged tribal society. Local tribes were ruled by kings who in turn were ruled by higher kings eventually leading to a provincial king who was the ruler over a whole province. Although the idea of a Kingship over all the kings of Ireland was claimed from this period it was not fully achieved until the eleventh century when on his death, Turlough O Brien nephew of Brian Boru was recorded in the Annals of Ulster as King of Ireland.

Each tribe had its own territority, known as a tuatha and ruled by a Rí or King. Each king was a ruler over lesser lords known as aire who were the main landowners of the specific tuatha or tribe. Generally, each tribal region was ruled by one family such as the O'Maddens of Lusmagh, the Mac Coughlans of Delbna Eathra, the O'Carrolls of Éile, the OíConors of Uí Failge, the O'Molloys of Fear Chell, the O'Dempseyís of Clanmaliere and the Foxes of Kilcoursey.

The boundaries of the modern baronies of Offaly were possibly based on these earlier tribal territories and, along with the diocesan boundaries, they give us a picture of the territories of the ancient rulers of fifth century Offaly. The south of Offaly comprising the modern baronies of Clonlisk and Ballybritt, was known as Eile, Ely O'Carroll territory, which in the fifth century was located in the province of Munster. The west of the county now occupied by the barony of Garrycastle was known as Delbna Eathra and was situated in the province of Meath.

The baronies of Ballyboy, Ballycowan and Kilcoursey were known as Cenéal Fiachach known later as Fear Chell (men of the Churches) also situated in Meath. The baronies of East Offaly were mainly located in the territory known as Uí Fáilge in the province of Leinster with an area around Geashill known as Clanmaliere and ruled by the O'Dempseys. A small area around Lusmagh known as Uí Maine territory was located in the province of Connaught.

This was the political background, in which the emergence of Christianity in Offaly took place, between the fifth and seventh centuries. And we will see this social structure of tribes and tuatha helped to cement the growth of monastic Christianity in Ireland. However, initially, the early churches, founded by Christian missionaries from Britain and Continental Europe, were based on the diocesan system as we know today, with its parishes, dioceses and bishops.

For example, Bishop MacCaille's church which is one of the earliest church sites in Offaly believed to founded in the fifth century on the ancient pagan site of Croghan Hill (Cruacháin Bríéile) may have been established along the diocesan system of church rule.

The use of pagan sites by the early Christians is not unusual. The cult of the holy well in Ireland may be the best example of a pagan symbol christianised by the new church.

Other pagan symbols in Offaly which have been christianised are the holy tree at Lemanaghan and the holy bush at Seir Kieran. At both places local tradition and the sense of identification between the people and their symbol is often stronger than with the monastic buildings themselves. However, the form of church organisation based on the diocesan system appears to have fallen out of favour with the Irish people and was replaced by the monastic system of church organisation.

This consists of a monastery founded by an Abbott who becomes an independent ruler and whose foundation may or may not provide sacraments for the ordinary people living in the area around the monastery. Each monastery became an independent authority often outside the control of the European church or the Roman Church. Groups of monasteries often claimed the same founder or an allegiance to another monastery and in these instances the first or major monastery ruled over the other related monasteries.

An example of this type of monastic grouping can be seen in the Columban monasteries of Durrow, and Derry which claimed a common link with the monastery at Iona in Scotland founded by Columcille in the sixth century.

These monasteries flourished throughout Offaly from the sixth and seventh centuries and had achieved great power and wealth by the ninth century. The ruling families of the Tuatha where the monasteries were founded often provided land and protection and later became the abbots or rulers of these sites.

The leaders of the tribes saw this as an opportunity for more power and prestige and this could be used to further their claim of kingship over a wider area of land.

Throughout the medieval period, monasteries attacked each other as they tried to become more powerful within their tribal region. There are numerous references to battles between the monasteries of Clonmacnoise and Birr. The location of the monasteries on the boundaries of ancient provinces also meant that they became the focus of important meetings between the rulers of these provinces.

The monasteries dominate the archaeological monuments of this period and are probably the best known monuments in Ireland. Important monasteries at Rahan, Kinnitty, Lynally, Durrow, Killeigh, Clonmacnoise and Birr are just a selection of the early church sites in Offaly.

These sites originally consisted of a large circular enclosure formed by one or more banks of earth and stone enclosing an area containing one or more churches- the earliest of which were constructed in timber- high crosses, cross-inscribed slabs, house sites and other monuments built by the monks of early Christian Offaly.

Seir Kieran at Clareen and Killeigh are two places in Offaly where one can still see the remains of the large enclosure marking the monastic boundaries. St Mella's cell at Lemanaghan and the St Ciaran's oratory at Clonmacnoise are two of the earliest monastic buildings in Offaly. These large monasteries have often been referred to as monastic towns and some people have suggested that these places were the earliest towns in Ireland.

Within these monasteries, other work associated with a large settlement, such as metalworking, cereal cultivation, glass making, stone building and lime making were carried out. A lot of this information has yet to be discovered and this makes the untouched rural setting of the Offaly monasteries, a vital resource in communicating the story about the origins of our towns, industries and crafts of Ireland.

Other works of art which were produced from monasteries are the illuminated manuscripts such as the seventh century Book of Durrow and the ninth century Book of Birr or Book of MacRegol produced at the monastery of Birr. The shrine of St Manchan now housed in Boher church was produced at the monastery of Lemanaghan and is one of many relics associated with the early monasteries and which became popular objects of reverence around the twelfth century. The high crosses of Durrow, Clonmacnoise, Kinnitty, Seir Kieran and Tihilly had several functions. In some instances they were used as entrance markers to the monastic enclosure while others were used to depict scenes from the bible to educate the congregation.

Several of these high crosses were erected in memory of the King of Ireland and it has been suggested that they were also used as political symbols to depict the divine right of the King to act as ruler over the local population.

At Gallen in Ferbane, an excavation at the site in 1934-5 revealed the foundations of a church situated on top of an earlier burial ground with over 200 Early Christian cross-inscribed graveslabs uncovered, some of these graveslabs can still be seen today at Gallen priory. Many graveslabs have been revealed at Clonmacnoise and other monasteries throughout the county while many more will more than likely be discovered in the future.

Lynally, Lemanaghan, Wheery and Gallen monastic sites have strong links with Wales and it is possible that the founders of these monasteries came from this region. Gallen, for example, was known historically as the place of the Welshmen.

Of course, there are many other monuments of this period which are not associated with the early church. These include:

CRANNÓGS: These are artificial or man-made islands, located on wet land or on lakes and constructed by creating an island of brushwood, peat and stones which forms a dry platform to support one or more buildings. The Ballynahinch Crannóg in Ballinderry Lough near Horseleap was excavated in 1942 and was dated to the Early Christian period.
The rich finds from these sites including items of fine metalworking and personal dress suggests that they could be the residences of the tribal rulers of Irish society. This theory is backed up by the defended nature of the settlement.

RINGFORTS/CASHELS: This monument type is the most common in the Irish landscape and consists of a circular area enclosed by an earthen bank and outer ditch with an entrance usually located on the downslope.
When the enclosing element consists of a dry stone wall the monument is referred to as a cashel. Locally these sites are referred to as Fairy forts, fairy rings, raths, lios or liss or just the fort. Excavations have revealed that these forts were designed as defended farmsteads for, usually, a single family.The enclosing bank acted as a foundation for a timber fence, which surrounded the farmyard, used for cattle rearing, and which contained a house, outhouses and possible metal working areas associated with the daily life of a farming family. There are just under 200 ringforts in Offaly with one of the best examples located in the townland of Knock near Leap Castle, known locally as Bergin's fort. The fort gives us an indication of the importance cattle played in the economy of Early Christian Ireland. They acted as the currency of the period and were the most valuable personal possession of the period. As wealth and status was calculated by the amount of cattle owned, it was, therefore, desirable, to ensure that livestock was protected. This was the movitation for the defendend farmsteads or ringforts which proliferate the landscape of the period.

The impressive ringfort at Ballywilliam in Coolderry parish.

Sometimes there is a local tradition of a tunnel connecting one fort to another, this monument type is known as a souterrain and consists of an underground chamber or chambers which can be faced and roofed with stone or timber sometimes found in the centre of a ringfort.

Five possible souterrains are known from Co. Offaly and it has been suggested that they were used as secure places of refuge, or as places for food storage or maybe for both.

The monuments of County Offaly are dominated by the monasteries of the Early Christian period with Clonmacnoise, Durrow, Rahan, Lemanaghan, Lynally, Gallen, Wheery and Seir Kieran representing the best preserved sites. At these sites one can still see the enclosures and churches built by the monks along with the stone crosses and graveslabs carved to commemorate the dead and their kings and is at places like Seir Kieran that one can still get a picture of what life in Early Christian Offaly felt like.

Clonmacnoise - Offaly's main monastic site

By the mid-twelfth century the monastic way of life was on the decline and the reform of the Irish church by the Roman Church with its structured diocesan system was about to receive a boost by the arrival of the Normans in 1169.

Bards, Tribes And Medieval Offaly

Throughout medieval times, the poet was an important member of Irish society and had a significant role to play in recording both the history and the origins of the tribal leaders and the important places situated in each tribal region.

Below are a selection of medieval poems about the rulers and their places in Medieval Offaly:

The O'Connor tribe from Uí Failge and the Hill of Croghan are celebrated by the bard known as O'Heerin- who died in 1420 AD.

Let us westward proceed to Offaley;
To which brave heroes make submission,
Of their laws I make mention,
Of their convention, I make remembrance.
The Lord of Offaley, a land of mirth,
Not unknown to the poets,
Is O'Conor, the mainstay of the fair plain,
Who rules as the green mound of Cruachan.

A second poem written by the same poet about the O'Carrolls tells us about the extent of the area they ruled, how many tribes it contained, and the importance, cattle played in the economy of the period;

Lords to whom great men submit
Are the O'Carrolls, of the plains of Birr,
Prince of Eile, as far as tall Slieve Bloom,
The most hospitable land in Erin.
Eight districts and eight chiefs are ruled
By the prince of Ely, of the land of herds;
Valiant in enforcing the tributes
Are the troops of the yellow-ringletted hair.

A poem by a poet known as O'Dugan described the people of Fearceall and their rulers as such:

The Prince of Fearcall of the ancient swords
Is O'Molloy of the free-born name;
Full Power was granted to him,
And he held his own country uncontrolled.

Pictured here is the headache stone at Kilmurrely Glebe Church near Shinrone with votive offerings. The stone may have been an early Christian mill stone which was reused in later years as an item of religious significance.

Medieval Offaly: The Arrival of the Anglo-Normans

From Timber Castles To The Origins Of Industry

During the twelfth century, the Irish monks started building stone churches and round towers in an architectural style known as the Romanesque. Cormac's chapel on the Rock of Cashel, built in 1127-34, was the first Romanesque church in Ireland. This style of architecture was introduced from Europe. It is based on the use of the round arch, and is dominated by zigzag or chevron pattern, which were used as decorative features on carved stone.

The Nun's Chapel in Clonmacnoise and the churches at Rahan are classic examples of Romanesque buildings in Offaly. At the same time, the church was undergoing a reformation in moving from monastic church rule to a parish church system.

Dioceses were managed by a bishop and were answerable to the Church in Rome. As part of this reform movement, came the Augustinian order, which established itself at Seir Kieran, Killeigh, Gallen and Durrow in the twelfth century. This could be seen as an attempt by the Celtic monasteries to reform their structure by introducing these reforming orders.

Later, during the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries new religious orders were set up at places like Kilcormac, where the Carmelites settled and at Killeigh and Monasteroris where the Franciscans were established in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries respectively. New parishes were established in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. For example in 1424, the church of Lynally was converted into a parish church for the newly created parish of Fearceall (baronies of Ballyboy, Eglish and part of Ballycowan).

Between 1536-1574, the monasteries of Offaly were dissolved by Henry VIII, and their lands were, in most cases, granted to English settlers. In 1538, John Lye was granted the site of the priory of Canons of Killeigh, with the gardens and dwellings attached to the monastery. In 1574, Nicholas Harberte was granted the old town of Monasteroris with its dissolved friary, two castles and twenty cottages and was renamed Harbartiston. Outside the world of the church, this period is witness to one of the most important historical events in the history of Ireland, the arrival of the Anglo-Normans.

In 1166, Rory O'Connor banished Diarmait Mac Murchadha, the deposed King of Leinster. Mac Murchadha went to Britain to get support from the King of England in his attempt to regain his lost throne. In 1169, a band of soldiers, or mercenaries, from England, Wales and Flanders, under the leadership of Richard de Clare (Strongbow), landed at Wexford to help Diarmait regain his kingship. Richard de Clare, better known as Strongbow, married Diarmait's daughter, Aoife, and became King of Leinster himself after Diarmait's death in 1171.

Between 1170 and 1220, the Anglo-Normans started the process of expansion and colonisation of lands throughout Ireland. This resulted in land being taken away from the native kings, and given to the new Anglo-Norman lords. Naturally enough, this was not a peaceful process and led to conflict and war between the Anglo-Norman lords and the Irish Kings.

The monument most visible in the Irish landscape from this period is known as a motte and bailey, which is in fact the foundations for a timber castle. These timber castles were used as military centres, built by the Anglo-Normans, during their initial war campaign in a new region. Once the area had been conquered, the castle would then become the location of the Lord's house and farm, and was known as a manor.

Once this was achieved, a stone castle often replaced the timber castle. Such an event may have occurred at Clonmacnoise, where the present day stone castle may have been built on top of an earlier timber castle.

A motte consists of a steep sided flat topped mound of earth, which resembles an upturned pudding bowl, the top of this was enclosed by a timber fence protecting a timber tower. Usually located to one side of the mound, there was a rectangular or D-shaped area enclosed by an earthen bank, crowned by a wooden fence, known as a bailey. This bailey acted as the courtyard for the castle, and would have been where the lord's soldiers and horses would have rested during their war campaign.

Drumcullen motte is a classic example of a timber castle, while Drumcooley near Edenderry, is another good example of a motte with an intact bailey. Once the Norman lord had fully established himself in the area and subdued the local resistance, he went about setting up a farm on his lands, and often established a community or village and parish church. This type of development, with castle, church and village became the classic medieval settlement in twelfth and thirteenth century Offaly. However, in a lot of instances, these new towns or villages appeared to have failed and when the Irish kings regained control of their areas from the late thirteenth century, these villages appear to have been abandoned.

In archaeological terms this type of site is known as a deserted medieval village with Cannakill near Croghan Hill being the best known example in Offaly. Contemporary with these villages, medieval farmers of Anglo-Norman descent were also setting up farmsteads in the countryside. Tillage was their main economic livelihood. These farmsteads consisted of square shaped areas, enclosed by an earthen bank, and often protected by a water filled moat, with a causeway across the moat acting as an entrance into the farmyard. This type of site is known as a moated site, with an excellent example located at Curralanty cross roads just outside Shinrone. The moated site would have acted as a defensive feature, protecting the farmers house and outhouses from fire and attack from the Irish kings. Very often medieval fields can be seen in the surrounding area around the moated site.

A moated site known as O'Dempsey's fort not far from Geashill

These Anglo-Norman families were familiar with the structure of a parochial church, and acted as supporters for the diocesan church resulting in the decline of the monastic Celtic church. Some leading Norman families in Offaly were the Fitzmaurices, who held lands around Geashill and Portarlington as early as 1199 AD, and the de Bermingham family around Edenderry, Hugh de Lacy was granted the whole province of Meath and was killed while inspecting his timber castle at Durrow in 1186.

The de Burgh family were granted Connaught, and were active in the Lusmagh/Banagher area around the early thirteenth century, while Birr and south Offaly in Ely O'Carroll territory was granted to Theobald Walter as early as 1185 AD, as part of a grant of the whole province of Munster.

The timber castles and moated sites found throughout Offaly represent the legacy of the Anglo-Norman settlement of the county in early years of the thirteenth century. Early stone castle from this period are rare in County Offaly, with Clonmacnoise Castle the only known example of a thirteenth century stone castle.

By the fifteenth century, the power of the Anglo-Norman families was in decline, while the Irish kings were regaining control over their traditional regions. The tower house is one of the best known monuments in the Irish countryside and reflects this change in land ownership.

These tower houses were often the residences of the Gaelic kings from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. However, in Offaly, the majority of tower houses are constructed in the late sixteenth/early seventeenth century as the residences of the Elizabethan planters.

A tower house can be described as a vertical tower, which contains a single main chamber at each storey, and is often three or more storeys high. Srah Castle near Tullamore and Leap Castle near Roscrea are two excellent examples of tower houses in Co. Offaly.

Srah was built in 1588 by John Briscoe, an officer in Queen Elizabeth's army. During the late sixteenth century, Laois and Offaly were planted with families from Britain known as the Elizabethan planters. These families constructed fortified residences on their newly acquired lands in the architectural fashion of that period. Where Gaelic lords maintained their lands they constructed similar tower houses that reflected their power and status. The tower houses contain several defensive features, such as holes in the walls for guns or cannons, stone boxes over doorways through which missiles can be dropped on attackers below, and embattled wall walks which can be used as protective look-outs for oncoming attacks.

Sragh Castle, just outside Tullamore - a fine example of a 16th century tower house.

These buildings are often protected outside by a large stone wall known to archaeologist as a bawn wall or courtyard. Sheds, stables and the kitchens were often located in this area and were usually built up against the inside of the bawn wall.

As we move into the seventeenth century, the cramped conditions of a single chamber tower house evolves into the larger, more luxurious dwellings known as fortified houses. Ballycowan castle, built in 1626 by Jasper Herbert, is a classic example of the new architectural style of the 1600s. These new buildings are constructed on a horizontal plan to accommodate more rooms on each storey.This architectural style shows the occupants concern has moved away from defence, and is more concerned with factors such as light, space, accommodation and prestige. The presence of large fireplaces, a number of windows and tall chimney stacks, some of which have no function, are all status symbols during the seventeenth century, and can be compared with the double garages and large gateways of our modern houses. The English government also constructed several fortifications along the River Shannon at Shannonbridge and Banagher. The fort at Banagher was known as Fort Falkland, and was completed by 1624 in order to control the crossing point of this important river.

The imposing remains of Ballycowan Castle - a 17th Century fortified dwelling.

Houses of the ruling classes began to appear without any noticeable defensive features such as placements for guns. These country houses were constructed purely for residential purposes and no longer required elements of defence in their construction. In some instances, such as at Srah, these later houses were built on to the front of earlier castles, as an extension to the castle. This type of building was usually two storeys high, with chimney stacks on one, or both gable ends, with steeply pitched roofs, often covered in thatch. The middle of the seventeenth century marks the end of the castle building era in Offaly and from this time onwards the architecture reflects a more peaceful time.

During this period French Huguenot settlers were establishing glass factories at Birr, Shinrone, Lusmagh, Portarlington and possibly the Blue Ball. This new industry was utilising the abundant supply of timber from the great woods of Offaly in order to were manufacture drinking vessels, and windows for the affluent houses of Ireland. The remains of a furnace can be found at Glasshouse townland near Shinrone.

The appearance of this industry marks the start of the industrialisation of Offaly, which, in the next few centuries, would leave an indelible mark on the landscape of our county.

The Medieval Annals of Ireland

Throughout the medieval period, history and major events were recorded by monks living in the monasteries in the forms of annals. One such source is the Annals of Clonmacnoise.
Below are selections of events that occurred in Medieval Offaly and recorded in the various annals:

In 756AD, it is recorded that there was a battle fought between Clonmacnoise and the inhabitants of Birr in a place called Moyne koysse Blaie.

In 1013AD, Murtagh O'Carry Calma took Molloye or Moylemoy, Prince of Ferkeall out of he church of Durrow and killed him at Moylena adjoining to Durrow.

In 1038 AD, it is recorded that there was great "contention and fraye" between those of Delvin MacCoghlan and those of Imaine (Ui Maine/Lusmagh) in Clonmacnoise on St. Ciarans Day. Two battles that day resulted in the death of 33 persons of Imanie.

In the following year, 1039 AD, Leithmanchan (Lemanaghan) was preyed upon and spoiled by those of Imanie (Ui Maine/Lusmagh) in revenge for the falling out between those of Imanie and those of Delvin in Clonmacnois before.

In 1131 AD Donnogh O Molloy, King of Fearceall was killed in captivity by Murrough O Melaghlin. Mortagh O Molloy who succeeded Doonogh as king of Fearceall, was burnt by the family of Moyntyr Swanym in the church of Rahan.

In 1305AD, Muirchertach O Conchobuir Fhailgi and In Calbach his brother, were slain by Sir Piers Bermingham. Sr Piers had deceitfully acted as god-father to the child of In Calbach and as co-sponsor with Muirchertach.

The child, Masir was thrown over the battlements of Monasteroris Castle.

Modern Offaly: The Formation Of A New Landscape

New Towns, Blacksmiths, Canals And Power Stations

From the eighteenth until the twentieth century, Offaly experienced major changes in its landscape. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, development and innovation in agricultural practices could be regarded as a revolution in the world of farming. Improvements such as drainage schemes, new crops, new breeds of livestock and new labour-saving machinery increased output and led to the introduction of new farm buildings and new farm landscapes, which in turn, had a dramatic effect on the appearance of the county.

Rural industries such as flour-milling, brewing, brickmaking and turf harvesting all gathered momentum during this time. This agricultural revolution was accompanied by the industrial revolution which had a major impact in our urban areas. These changes were driven by the landed gentry who were both the innovators and business entrepreneurs of their time.

The combination of this technological revolution, along with the growth of the landlord system, has left an amazing legacy of monuments in our county.

The homes of these landlords can still be seen at Birr Castle, Charleville Castle and Kinnitty Castle to name but a few. However, most of these buildings were constructed mainly in the nineteenth century as part of a demesne, i.e. a planned and carefully designed estate with pathways, gardens and ornamental buildings, all of which were constructed to enhance the setting of the landlords house.

The ice-house at the Scurragh in Birr was constructed to provide a luxury item of its day, ice for the nearby big house. A gazebo at Toberdaly House near Edenderry was built to provide the owners with a teahouse from which they could survey their demesne. Estate villages and towns were being re-designed and built by landlords in the nineteenth century. Towns such as Birr and Tullamore experienced a burst of building activity stimulated by the Rosse and Bury families respectively. The village of Geashill is an excellent example of an estate village, built by Lord Digby, and which was of such high quality that it received a bronze medal for the cottages at the Paris exhibition of 1867. The layout of the village with the village green and the excellent build and design quality of the cottages, make Geashill one of the most attractive villages in the county. Timber fronted shops with their hand painted lettering, the market house and square, middle class Georgian houses and artisans and labourers' cottages, reflected the new found prosperity of eighteenth and nineteenth century market towns.

As mentioned above, the industrial revolution was to have a major impact on the landscape of the county. The construction of the Grand Canal from Dublin to Shannon Harbour in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century has left a lasting legacy which is beginning to prosper once more, this time as a valuable amenity in the leisure and tourism sectors of our economy.

Towns like Edenderry, Daingean and Tullamore developed as inland ports and became prosperous trading towns as a result of being connected to Dubin by the canal. The Digby Bridge near Edenderry, built in 1797 AD, is a classic example of a hump-backed canal bridge. The lock-keepers house is another distinctive building which can still be seen today along the banks of the canal. The stone warehouses and stores along the canal, and their harbours at Tullamore, Daingean, Edenderry and Shannon Harbour are symbols of the economic prosperity of the county during this period. As late as 1971, turf was still being transported from Offaly to the harbours at Harolds Cross and Portobello, where the local people would purchase the turf for the fires of their Dublin homes.

Around twenty five per cent of Guinness was transported along the canal, and the Guinness barges passing through Offaly were one of the great traditional images of our county. Today the canals are experiencing a new lease of life as holiday barges slowly cruise through the county. This would never have happened if these canals had been allowed to disappear.

Unfortunately, the same cannot be said for the fate of the railways in Offaly. By the end of the nineteenth century, railway stations had been built in Birr, Tullamore, Edenderry, Portarlington, Belmont, Ballycumber, Clara, Ferbane, Banagher and Geashill. Today, all that survives of this once impressive network of railway lines and their buildings are the stations at Portarlington, Tullamore and Clara.

The quality of the stonework, and the classic design of railway stations with their impressive iron, stone bridges and storehouses were easily recognisable in the landscape of the towns of our county. Over the past few decades, these buildings and bridges have either been pulled down or left to decay through neglect, and the rail lines have disappeared for good.

The military Barracks at Crinkill, near Birr, was once the finest barracks in Ireland and was built around 1809 to accommodate over 1000 infantrymen. Other impressive buildings of the nineteenth century are the courthouse in Tullamore, the Edenderry market house and the reformatory at Daingean to name just a few. The latter building was constructed as a prison for boys under the age of sixteen and was used recently as a store for the National Museum's folklife collection, now on display in Castlebar, Co. Mayo.

The remains of the military barracks at Crinkle.

The Great Famine of the 1840s left an everlasting impression in the minds of the Irish people. Not only did it have a psychological impact, but it also left behind a legacy of monuments such as the workhouses and famine relief roads, walls and bridges. These are the physical remains of the most traumatic phase of our history and should be preserved and presented to the public as reminders of this important period.

There were three workhouses in Offaly, at Tullamore, Edenderry and Birr, all of which were built around the 1840s. These structure were built to a standard architectural plan, and the workhouse at Birr is one of the best preserved examples in Ireland.

In 1849, 756 people died in the Fever Hospital in Birr which was the second highest figure of deaths recorded that year in Ireland. The future of this building and how, as a community, we protect it, will be a reflection of our attitude to the past and the physical remains of our ancestors.

By 1850, there were nearly 80 mills in Offaly, the majority of them located in the rich fertile soils of south Offaly, though there were seven corn mills located in the parish of Geashill. These were impressive five storey buildings, accompanied by a mill race and mill pond, often with other buildings clustered around the mill. A good example of one can be seen at Keeloge near the village of Shinrone. During the same period, one of the most familiar images of an Offaly village or town was the sight of the blacksmith at work in his forge. These distinctive buildings, with their horseshoe shaped arches, were probably built around the 1850s-70s and can still be seen around the Killeigh area, where they have been sympathetically restored and converted for modern usage.

The appearance of the petrol station and modern garage heralded the decline and eventual disappearance of the forge and the blacksmith. At these buildings, the blacksmith would handcraft horseshoes and many agricultural implements, as well as some impressive field gates which are, in some instances, good examples of local or folk art. The products of the blacksmith's forge are often all that is left of this once important craft and should be maintained and preserved in their original locations where possible.

A bust of St. Ciaran, an example of 19th Century folk art.

Paddy Heaney of Cadamstown in his book "At the foot of Slieve Bloom", describes the old forge at Cadamstown as a building with a 'thatched roof and an old earthen floor with the anvil taking up the centre. The big bellows, the long ash handle with the weight attached, the hob for the fire, the horses shoes hanging from a rack on the wall, the tools laid out on the bench and of course, the big 8-stone pot full of water'. This image recalls our recent past, and shows how quickly we have moved away from our agricultural origins.

Our farming heritage represents the most important part of our past and the physical remains of our nineteenth century farms, such as farmyards containing animal shelters, pig sties, hen houses, farmhouses, dairies and farm machinery, should be at least recorded and surveyed before they are lost forever.

The lime-kiln is a another example of a common building which is now a rarity and was once a feature of every parish. At these kilns, lime was burnt to produce quicklime, which was then used either as a fertiliser or as a lime mortar in the construction of a local building, and as a lime wash for the external rendering of a building. These large limestone built structures were often built into the side of a hill so that they could be loaded with stone and timber from the top. The majority of the surviving kilns date from the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as they became obsolete when cement was introduced around the 1820s.

The development of our bogs during this period has uncovered many archaeological treasures. However one of the most important legacies of this exploitation are the physical remains of the factories and workshops involved in the working of the bogs. Between 1930 and 1950 the bogs were being exploited initially with machinery imported from Germany, but later with machines designed and manufactured by Offaly people in the workshops of Bord na Mona. By the 1950s the ESB had constructed large peat fired power stations with impressive cooling towers at Portarlington, Boora and Rhode and these became landmark buildings.

The now demolished power station at Portarlington, part of the country's 20th century heritage.

The towers at Boora were, at one stage, the largest examples of their kind in Western Europe and represented a feat of engineering design unparalleled elsewhere on the continent. Only the cooling tower at Rhode survives, while the other two sites have been demolished. These towers were the architectural symbols of the contribution Offaly made to the industrialisation of Ireland. The bogs of Offaly brought prosperity to our county during a period of mass emigration and poverty and attracted immigration from other parts of rural Ireland. The story of this prosperity is still visible and waiting to be told to the next generation of Offaly people. Hopefully, there will be something physical to show them, namely the buildings in which their grandparents had worked and the unique machinery which they designed and manufactured.

The term monument can be used to describe the material remains of past generations, from the earliest times until the modern era. They offer us a physical connection with our ancestors and what we do with this legacy will depend on our attitude as a community towards the past and how we want to progress into the future.

If we decide to remove the monuments of our past, and replace them with modern buildings, we are effectively removing our history from the towns, villages and countryside. In doing so, we are in danger of losing our identity and changing our landscape from a unique picture, which has evolved down through the ages, and replacing it with a bland imitation of new monuments which can be found everywhere in the developed world.

It has been suggested that the presence and knowledge of the past enhances the quality of a person's life. People, in general, appear to be inherently attracted to historic monuments as if it was in their human nature. In the rapidly changing landscape of modern Offaly, the knowledge of our past often provides us with a sense of security and timelessness which helps us advance into the future. There is a need for modern development, but it does not have to be at the expense of our past.

It can happily sit side by side with our historic landscape, and in doing so, can help to tell the story of the economic development of our county in the new millennium.

Holy Wells and Forges of Kilcormac

Around Kilcormac there are three wells dedicated to St. Cormac, the following is a story about these wells from the folklore collection of the 1930s. The second story describes a local forge located on the Kilcormac-Birr road. St. Colman of Lynally near Tullamore prophesised that St. Cormac would be torn to pieces by wolves. St Cormac was terrified at the dreadful prospect. He erected a tower like one of the old round towers of Ireland in St. Joseph's field, Kilcormac. The tower had a hole or window in the top by which he got his food and drink. One day St. Cormac was praying in the field when two wolves appeared before him. When Cormac saw them he ran up an iron rail and pulled it in after him. Then the wolves changed into snails and crawled up the wall and got inside the tower and on doing so turned back into wolves. St. Cormac threw himself out of the tower and fled the field with the two wolves snarling at his heels. At last they caught him but he broke away.

This happened three times and every time he fell a spring of clear water burst up. That is how all the wells of St. Cormac came to be around Kilcormac. It was recorded that local people used to visit St. Cormac's well which was able to cure any disease. There was a bush beside the well where people go to visit and hang pieces of cloth on it. When people visit the well they rub the affected part and leave the piece of cloth used hanging on the bush.

A young boy near Kilcormac recorded that there was one forge in his parish owned by a man named Thomas Mahon. Both his father and grandfather were smiths in times gone. He describes the forge as being "situated at a crossroads about six miles from Birr and is built from cement and stones. The roof is covered in zinc which is painted red and has two black doors. There is one fireplace and there is also a bellows for kindling the fire. The smith shoes horses and donkeys and he can make all kinds of farm implements such as ploughs, harrows, cultivators, grubbers and chains. When the smith is going to shoe a horse, first he puts the shoes into the fire to get red, then he takes them out when they are red, and beats them into the shape of the horses hoof. The he puts them on the horses hooves with horse nails. When he is going to make a plough he reddens the iron in the fire, then he beats it into the shape of the plough. He also makes cranes and grates for the houses".

Acknowledgment:
The Offaly Heritage Forum and the 'Tribune' would like to thank Offaly County Library and particularly, the local studies section, for their assistance in producing this series.